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THE TRAINING OF 
CHILDREN 

A BOOK FOR YOUNG TEACHERS 



BY 
JOHN WIRT DINSMORE, A.M. 

PROFESSOR OF PEDAGOGY 

AND DEAN OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL OF BEREA COLLEGE 

BEREA, KENTUCKY 

AUTHOR OF "teaching A DISTRICT SCHOOL" 




NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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v^5^ 



Copyright, 1912, by 
JOHN WIRT DINSMORE 



TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

w. p. I 



gCI.A3i;)244 



PREFACE 

A former book, entitled "Teaching a District School," 
having been received with gratifying appreciation by those 
for whom it was written, and also with the commendation 
of leading educators the country over, it is hoped that the 
present volume may be equally well received and prove to 
be even more helpful than its predecessor. 

It has long been the desire of the author to prepare, for 
country and village teachers, a work on the development 
and training of the mind that would contain the essential 
facts of psychology so plainly and simply expressed that 
any person might grasp their meaning without a too fre- 
quent appeal to the dictionary. It is possible, or it should 
be possible, to express the underlying truths of any im- 
portant science in the everyday language of the people. 

Many young men and young women who lack both high 
school and college training are nevertheless not lacking in 
intelligence. They have the ability to understand any 
available knowledge that is not expressed in terms with 
which they are unfamiliar. There are many of this class 
who are capable of doing and are doing excellent work as 
teachers; they possess the natural qualities requisite to 

3 



4 PREFACE 

success and are eager to learn. "Teaching a District 
School" was offered as a first aid to this class. Its main 
purpose was to assist the inexperienced to master the tech- 
nique of teaching. 

This much having been accomplished there should natu- 
rally arise a desire for reliable information concerning the 
nature and development of the human mind, its needs, its 
manifestations, its inclinations, and, if possible, its destina- 
tion. 

This book is designed to meet such a desire. It does not 
pretend to be an exhaustive treatise concerning either the 
nature or the training of the mind. It is intended to fur- 
nish sound instruction, -based upon well-known and funda- 
mental truths, to those who are engaged in the training of 
children either in the home or in the common schools. It 
should also prove valuable as an elementary textbook in 
high schools, academies, and normal schools. 

There has been no desire on the author's part to furnish 
knowledge to those who wish merely to be informed upon 
the subject but who have no inclination to turn their at- 
tainments into practical use. The aim has been, all the 
way through, not only to supply practical knowledge in 
plain and simple language but to indicate continually the 
way to apply it. 

It is hoped that parents and teachers generally may avail 
themselves of the information contained in this book, 
gathered through years of teaching and observation, and 



PREFACE 5 

that the suggestions herein offered may contribute to a 
"more abundant life" for the multitudes of little ones that 
have been constantly in mind from the beginning of the 
work to its close. 

J. W. D. 
Berea, Ky. 



CONTENTS 



PART ONE. PRIOR TO SCHOOL AGE 

CHAPTER PAGE 

I. The Teacher's Business . ii* 

II. The Period of Acquaintance 21 

III. Materials for Instruction 43 

IV. Parental Government 69 

V. Punishment loS 

PART TWO. SCHOOL LIFE 

VI. When a Child Enters School 125 

VII. The Divisions of School Life 136 

VIII. The Physiological Basis of Mental Activity . . 148 

IX. Sensation 159 

X. The Sense Organs 169 

XI. The Care of the Sense Organs 186 

XII. Perception 198 

XIII. Memory 214 

XIV. Imagination 237 

XV. The Thinking Power . 257 

XVI. The Feelings 270 

XVII. The Will — Minor Activities 299 

XVIII. The Will — Major Activities 314 



PART ONE 
PRIOR TO SCHOOL AGE 



THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

CHAPTER I 
THE TEACHER'S BUSINESS 

The business of the teacher is to train the minds of 
the children in his charge. To do this he must under- 
stand something of the nature of the mind, what it 
feeds upon, how it increases in strength, its periods of 
activity and its need of change or rest. Most beginning 
teachers of country schools have not made any care- 
ful study of the mind. Their education has not been 
far enough advanced for the study of psychology, and 
their own observations of the nature of the mind, while 
extremely valuable have not been classified and ar- 
ranged for ready use. 

Psychology is a difficult study and in most states is 
properly placed beyond the requirements of a county 
certificate. Even elementary psychology as found in 
the text books is a high-school or academy study and 
many of the teachers of country schools have not 
had the privilege of a high-school or academy training. 
Yet a knowledge of the mind is essential to the country 
teacher. No one can be an expert in the training of the 

II 



12 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

mind who does not know something of its powers and 
how they develop. Hence the district school teacher 
should have accurate informatfbn on the subject. 

Most parents likewise have not studied psychology 
in the schools although they have the responsibility of 
training the minds of their children. Every civilized 
race has, outside of books and schools, a considerable 
supply of wisdom for the training of children in right- 
eousness and industry. In the early days this sufficed 
better than now. 

Our civilization has become so many-sided, so com- 
plex, and the struggle for existence so fierce, that par- 
ental wisdom needs to be supplemented by the schools. 
This scholastic knowledge must be imparted in large 
measure by the teachers as they are nearest to parents 
both in sympathy and obligations. The principles 
that govern mind development may be stated in terms 
so plain and practical as to be within the comprehension 
of all teachers — even those who have lacked higher 
training — and when so stated should be eagerly sought 
and utilized. 

The Nature of the Mind. — We do not know ^vhat the 
mind is, but we do know that it is the principal factor 
in the world's progress. It is so complicated in its 
organism, so intricate in its workings, so far-reaching 
in its destiny that only the Infinite One can fully com- 
prehend it. The only earthly power that can study 
it or even make an effort to understand it is the mind 
itself. It has commanded the attention of the great- 



THE TEACHER'S BUSINESS 13 

est thinkers of every age in every land. Yet it may 
be said that the mind knows but little of its own powers 
or of the nature of its workings. We do not know how 
nor why we can remember, or imagine, or how the 
mind can look upon its own actions or be conscious 
of its own thoughts. 

Shakespeare said: "What a piece of work is man! 
How noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties ! in form 
and moving, how express and admirable! in action, 
how like an angel! in apprehension, how like a god!" 

The Bible puts man in close touch with God when it 
says: "What is man that Thou art mindful of him, 
and the son of man that Thou visitest him? Thou 
hast made him a little lower than the angels, and hast 
crowned him with glory and honor. Thou hast put 
all things under his feet." 

What has been learned. — Of the development of the 
mind much has been learned both by observation and 
by experience. We can watch the development of the 
mental powers of an infant from its birth upward, 
from the dawning of intelligence to ripe knowledge. 
We can observe the workings of the minds of the people 
about us. By their words, by the expression of their 
faces and by their actions we can tell to a considerable 
degree of accuracy what they think and what has pro- 
duced their thoughts. We can also study our own 
minds by taking note of our thoughts and how we 
came by them. 

In this way we may discover the powers of the mind 



14 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

and the limitations of those powers. We find that at 
times the mind works well, at other times poorly; some- 
times rapidly and clearly, and again slowly and vaguely. 
We find also that minds differ from one another in their 
respective powers. Some can remember better than 
others, some have greater powers of imagination and 
thought; and we observe that training makes a great 
difference upon all, particularly if begun early in life. 
There is no more interesting occupation than the study 
of the mind. 

Conditions of the Mind at Birth. — When a child first 
comes into the world his only knowledge, if he has any, 
is instinctive. Knowledge of the v/orld is gained through 
the senses, and at birth these are inoperative. The 
new-born child has eyes but cannot see, ears but can- 
not hear. These organs may be perfect enough but 
the child is not conscious of them or of their powers. 
The strongest light may be flashed into the eyes with 
no response. A loud noise in the ear will produce no 
signs of conscious hearing. 

This condition lasts in a healthy child but a short 
time, say a few hours or a few days. 

The senses of touch, smell and taste come into service 
before sight and hearing. It is said that a babe a few 
hours old can sustain his weight with one hand grasp- 
ing a small stick or the nurse's finger. This remarkable 
power disappears in a few weeks not to be gained again 
for several years. The sense of smell and of taste is 
thought to be acute in early infancy. 



THE TEACHER'S BUSINESS 15 

Seeing. — The first indication of conscious seeing 
occurs when something bright, put before the baby's 
eyes, engages his attention. At this stage if the object 
is taken out of direct range it is lost. A Httle later if 
the object is moved slowly the eyeballs will move to 
right or left following it. Later still the child will 
turn his head to keep in sight a slowly moving object 
but if the object be lost to sight will not search for it. 
The complete act of seeing has been acquired when the 
child learns to look for objects and to examine them 
carefully. It may be added that the eyes of an infant 
do not accommodate themselves to very small objects. 
Even at six or eight years children should not be re- 
quired to look at small letters on a printed page for 
any considerable length of time. The eyes are a very 
precious heritage and the care of them merits further 
discussion in another chapter. 

Hearing. — The first indications of hearing are likely to 
be observed when the child is from one to three weeks 
old. Some loud or shrill noise may startle him, the low 
crooning of the mother's voice may soothe him, or a 
stranger's voice may frighten him. Children at a very 
early age are fond of noise. Sweet music and gentle 
tones are no doubt best for their educative value but 
they are in nowise particular in choosing. Discord does 
no violence to their nerves. A rattle box, pounding on 
a tin pan or filing a saw is just as interesting as music. 
Children are also fond of their own babbling and coo- 
ing, and however it may sound to them it is always 



1 6 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

sweet to the parents' ears. They should be allowed 
to do as much of it as they will. 

Sensation. — The faculty of the mind that responds to 
all these sense organs is called sensation. Light upon 
the eyes produces the sensation of sight. Noise pro- 
duces the sensation of sound through the ears; and each 
of the organs of smell, taste, and touch produces its 
own particular kind of sensation. Any external object 
that calls a sense organ into action is called a stimnlus. 
Thus any object from which light comes into the eye 
is a stimulus setting that organ into action. Noise is 
a stimulus for the ear, odor for the nose, and so on. The 
mind has the sense of seeing, of hearing, of smelling, of 
tasting, and of touching. 

Perception. — When the mind gives sufficient attention 
to a sensation to identify the object producing it or to 
determine its qualities, the process is called perception. 
For example, we have a sensation of pain on the hand 
and giving attention perceive the cause to be a mosquito. 
We see an object that is strange to us, pick it up, ex- 
amine it, and perceive that it is rough, smooth, hard, soft 
or whatever its qualities may be. We are constantly 
perceiving that objects are warm or cold, that the air 
is moist or dry, that the sky is clear or cloudy, and a 
thousand other things. The product of a complete 
act of perceiving is called a percept. 

Observation. — Observation is the power of the mind 
that takes in the objects within reach of the senses, 
identifies them or attempts to do so, and fixes them as 



THE TEACHER'S BUSINESS 1 7 

to time and place. Thus an observing child will be able 
long afterward to give an account of the things he 
heard or saw on some trip that took him out of his usual 
environment giving time, place, and numerous details 
to the objects described. Observation differs from 
attention in that it is not prolonged. Observation is 
merely the mind on the alert for everything within 
sight or sound. All common or uninteresting objects 
are merely recognized and passed while anything new 
or strange holds the attention for further investigation. 
If a strange bird, an unknown flower, or a fine building 
comes into view the object is given attention. Here 
again the alert-minded person will take in a multi- 
plicity of details that a duller one will not notice. The 
faculty of observation is extremely valuable and should 
be cultivated early in life. 

Memory. — Memory is the power that enables us to 
recall sensations and perceptions that were previously 
before the mind. The object that produced the sen- 
sation and brought about the perception, whether 
sight, sound, touch, taste, or smell, is gone from us but 
we can recall the sensation and the perception together 
with the emotions that it aroused of curiosity, admira- 
tion, pity, fear or what not, pass them in review before 
us and live the former experience over again. We can 
see in the mind each detail, where it belongs, its re- 
lation to the whole; and by dwelling upon it, we can so 
fix the whole that we can recall it at any time after- 
ward for review or for describing to others. 



l8 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

Memory is a wonderful power. It makes all things 
possible. Without it we should be nothing. If all past 
memory w^re suddenly cut off we should be utterly 
helpless. We could not walk out the door or move 
hand or foot intelligently, because we could not re- 
member how. Its cultivation deserves the profoundest 
thought and care. 

Imagination. — The power that enables us to make 
mental pictures, to give form, color, and setting to 
things we hear or read, to mentally construct things 
wholly new or partly new, to lift the veil of futurity 
and see things as they will be or as we hope or fear they 
will be, is called Imagination. Without this wonderful 
gift life could have but little interest. We should be 
aware only of the things with which we actually come 
into contact. When a friend recounts an exciting ad- 
venture we are all ears to hear it and all imagination 
to picture it. We see it as he saw it, we are affected as 
he was. To make the picture complete we put in details 
which he omits. The cultivation and control of this 
valuable faculty deserves our most careful study. 

Reflection. — With the aid of memory and imagina- 
tion we may take the materials of sensation and per- 
ception and hold our attention upon them for a con- 
siderable length of time, examining them from different 
viewpoints and arranging them and rearranging them 
to suit our fancy. This process is called Reflection or 
Thouglit. This is the highest power of the mind. By 
thinking, we see the relations of things, and from these 



THE TEACHER'S BUSINESS 19 

relations we draw conclusions and decide what action 
to take or to refrain from taking. 

The Will. — The will is the mind at work carrying out 
its own decisions. When a certain course has been de- 
termined upon the will acting through the nerves 
brings the muscles into action until the desired end 
has been accomplished. For example, suppose I finish 
a certain task and have an hour's leisure to dispose of 
in any way I may choose before beginning the next 
regular task. By the aid of memory I recall a number 
of things that gave me pleasure at other times. I may 
go for a walk, read, call upon a neighbor, play a game, 
or take a nap. Imagination comes to the aid of mem- 
ory and shows as in a picture the amount of pleasure 
T am likely to get out of each of these. I compare 
these several pictures, conclude that some one of them 
offers more inducements than any of the others, and 
decide upon that one. Then by an exercise of the will 
I proceed to put it into effect by bringing the proper 
muscles into action. 

The Emotions. — The emotions play a large part in re- 
flection, in drawing conclusions, in forming decisions 
and carrying them out. Love, joy, admiration, curi- 
osity, pity, fear, hope, anger, hate, jealousy, envy, all 
have their influence upon our minds, often biasing our 
judgment and causing us to think or act as we other- 
wise would not. The emotions are powers of the mind 
and need to be studied so that they may be cultivated 
or restrained as the case may require. 



20 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

The Field of Pedagogy. — The foregoing are the prin- 
cipal subjects of that division of pedagogy known as 
psychology. In addition to a knowledge of these the 
teacher should be wtII versed in physiology and hygiene, 
in courses and curriculums of study, in methods of 
teaching and school management. The chief object of 
this book is, as has been stated, the Training of the 
Mind. The other topics will be touched upon as the 
connection requires and as the space of the volume 
permits. 



CHAPTER II 
THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 

Man is lord of creation, the supreme being among all 
the animals of the earth. All progress beyond natural 
evolution is due to him. God said to the first man and 
woman, "Multiply and replenish the earth and subdue 
it. Thou shalt have dominion over the beasts of the 
field, the fowls of the air, and over every living thing 
that creepeth upon the face of the earth." 

Yet man at his birth is among the feeblest of earth's 
living creatures. In his little realm of activities he is 
guided entirely by instinct, and of this he probably 
has less than any other of the higher animals and less 
than many of the lower types. All his wants must be 
administered by others. In an almost utterly helpless 
condition he is ushered into the world with absolutely 
no knowledge of what awaits him. Yet, helpless as he 
is, his life will require a thousand times more intelli- 
gence than that of any other animal. Fortunately it 
requires many years to reach maturity, giving hin} 
abundance of time to become acquainted with his sur- 
roundings and to acquire skill in the use of his powers. 
In all these years he is mainly dependent upon others 
for life and learning. 

21 



22 THE TRAlXINd OF CHILDREN 

How eagerly the mother watches for signs of intelli- 
gence in her child. The first smile is proclaimed as 
though it were the rarest phenomenon. The gradual 
acquirement of the use of hand and eye and ear are 
each noted with the greatest interest and satisfaction 
to such an extent that, to the doting parent, it is doubt- 
ful if any child ever before progressed so rapidly. At 
six weeks, the baby recognizes each member of the 
household and is lavish with his smiles. At two months 
he can guide his hand to his mouth, and tests every- 
thing within the grasp of that all-important organ. 
His chief interest in life seems to center in finding some- 
thing to eat. His principal activities consist in exer- 
cising his limbs and his lungs. 

The Activity of a Growing Child. — From the time the 
little one learns to creep or to walk, his chief character- 
istic is his wonderful activity. In all his waking hours 
the sense of sight, hearing, touch, and taste are on the 
alert to make the acquaintance of everything that comes 
within range. In fact his principal business for the 
first five years is to make the acquaintance of the world 
around him. The number of things he can do in a day 
is astounding. A child two or three years old can go 
through enough motions in ten hours, sitting down, 
rolling about, jumping up, dancing, skipping and run- 
ning to tire out several grown people. This ceaseless 
activity is nature's schooling. Every motion makes 
him stronger, more skillful, surer of himself. 

Everything that comes within his grasp he investi- 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 23 

gates with eyes, hands, and mouth. Things beyond 
his reach that he sees or hears, he wants to know the 
names of. His chief questions are, "What is this, 
mamma?" "WTiat is that, papa?" He repeats the 
names of new objects many times so that he will not 
forget them. Many things he remembers best by the 
sound they make, as the "bow-wow," the "moo-moo" 
and the "choo-choos." He is interested in everything. 
He learns that objects are hard, soft, smooth, sticky, 
etc. He is constantly enlarging his acquaintance. 
Under favorable circumstances he will learn more new 
things in a day than an adult will in a month or a year. 

Blessed is that child whose surroundings are varied, 
who is encouraged to ask questions and to investigate to 
his heart's content everything that is safe. Such a 
child will at five know half as many things as he will 
ever know, and the foundation will be laid for the 
noblest structure of which the human being is capable. 

On the other hand the child who is reared amid 
meager or barren surroundings, who is met at every 
point with "don'ts," and "hush-ups," at the age of 
five will have the mark of the dullard stamped upon his 
face, and will in large measure have lost the most 
precious years of life. Even if in later years, through- 
the efforts of some faithful teacher he should have his 
soul awakened he will have a hard struggle to rise above 
mediocrity. Lost opportunities at the beginning of 
life are the most difficult to recover. 

Mental Development of the First Five Years. — When 



24 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

a child is born his mental powers are, so to speak, in the 
germ. Their development begins early, but some are 
evident long before others and make rapid progress. 
Sensation is the first to appear. The new-born babe 
announces his arrival with a cry, caused no doubt by a 
general sense of discomfort upon his entrance into a 
cold world. For some days there is no acute sense of 
pain. If any part of the body is injured there is pro- 
duced only that same general sense of discomfort that 
accompanied his arrival. A few months later the sense 
of pain is very acute, probably reaching its maximum 
long before maturity. 

This acute sense of pain is necessary to the child as a 
warning and protection against accidents. Nature 
tries to atone for the sharpness of pain by making it 
short lived. Little bumps and bruises heal with great 
rapidity. While a child quickly learns to avoid things 
that cause pain, as a hot urn or kitty's claws, still the 
small accidents incident to these early years are many, 
indeed, and are a part of his training. The tumbles 
and bumps and bruised fingers are conducive to caution 
and watchfulness, and prepare him for the rough edges 
of life, with which he is sure to come into contact in 
'later years. 

Perception. — Perception is almost if not quite co- 
incident with sensation. The new-born babe would 
hardly cry unless he perceived in some dim way a sense 
of discomfort. He perceives and responds when the 
means of nourishment are placed within his reach. He 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 25 

is sufficiently conscious of hunger to make his wants 
known and probably perceives a sense of satisfaction 
when they have been supplied. He objects seriously 
when placed in the bath, but responds quickly to the 
comfort of warm, soft wraps by growing quiet and 
dropping off to sleep. 

In a few weeks perception has so far developed that 
the child recognizes the voice and touch of his nearest 
friends. If a stranger speaks or takes hold of him he 
knows the difference at once and is likely to give 
abundant evidence of his disapproval. This is not so 
likely to be evident when a number of different people 
share in his care. 

It is interesting to notice w^hen a child first perceives 
his hand or his foot. He looks at the little member 
with wonder and appears to be making its acquaintance. 
For some time he is not aware that it "is a part of him- 
self, and when he discovers this fact he has made his 
first excursion into the realm of space, that is he finds 
himself to extend farther than he knew. He increases 
his perception of space rapidly when he begins to creep 
or walk. When he wants a thing that is out of his 
reach he first cries for it, then makes an effort to reach 
it, and finally moves toward it. 

The idea of distance is crude at first and changes with 
the child's development. He judges of distance by his 
ability to compass it. When he is taking his first lesson 
in walking, the hands held out to him seem a long and 
dangerous way off. A few days later the same distance 



26 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

would seem nothing in comparison. Any unconquered 
space appears far and is looked upon with doubt or 
dread, but being traversed frequently, takes its place 
with other familiar distances. The idea that distances 
appear greater to childhood than to maturity is evi- 
denced by the fact that w^hen persons return to the 
home of their childhood they are greatly surprised to 
find how things have shrunken. Fields that in the early 
days seemed almost illimitable are now scarcely more 
than lots. The houses of the neighbors have all grown 
smaller and have moved closer to each other, while the 
old swimming pond that used to be so wide and so 
deep appears little larger than a bathing tub. 

Memory. — Until a child has had time to acquire 
knowledge of a practical nature he is guided in his needs 
by instinct. Instinct has been aptly called inherited 
memory. It is 'sufficient for the wants of the child 
until his mental powers are somewhat developed when 
it gradually loses its sway, giving place to accjuired 
knowledge. As soon as the child recognizes his mother's 
voice or touch he is exercising the power of memory. 
It seems pretty certain that the senses of touch and of 
hearing are more active and accurate at this early 
stage than the sense of sight. From its first indication, 
memory like perception develops rapidly, and nature 
should be allowed to take her own course. Any at- 
tempt at forcing would probably do more harm than 
good. 

Conditions of Growth. — For some months the child's 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 27 

chief business is growing and gaining in strength. For 
amusement, the exercise of his lungs and his Hmbs 
should be suf!icient. After he has learned to sit up 
he will be interested in playthings. Those that he can 
bite on, pound with, or that will make a noise, will give 
him the most pleasure. He needs no great variety at 
this stage. 

When he has learned to move about at will, he will 
find plenty to occupy his attention. He will examine 
many things, first to ascertain if they are good to eat, 
next to pound with or throw down. Even at this 
point it is well to keep in touch with the child's interest 
and to supply him with harmless objects that will give 
him pleasure. Something that will come apart and 
fit together again, as a small bottle with a cork, will 
tax his attention to the utmost, and his little hands 
will gain much skill in its manipulation. Whatever 
the contrivance, so that it is within his power, he will 
work at it diligently until he has mastered it, after 
which it will, for a time at least, lose its interest and he 
is ready for something else. In the meantime, percep- 
tion, memory, and even imagination have all been 
called to work. This leads us to the consideration of 
the last-named power. 

The Imagination. — This faculty cannot be exercised 
until there is considerable material to work upon. 
Many things must have been perceived and examined, 
and knowledge acquired, before imagination comes 
into use. In the case of the small bottle and the cork, 



28 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the child may have seen corks taken out of bottles. 
When he gets hold of this one he imagines the cork out 
and proceeds to extract it, making every possible 
effort until his puipose is achieved. When the cork is 
out, he forthwith imagines it in again and immediately 
essays the task. This is much more difficult than pull- 
ing it out, and his chubby hands make many awkward 
attempts; but at last he succeeds, or failing seeks aid 
and watches the operation just as he imagined it could 
be done. Such an occasion as this affords a good op- 
portunity to observe the amount of patience, per- 
severance, ingenuity, and skill the little one possesses. 

Reasoning and Will. — In the above illustration rea- 
soning is likewise in evidence. The child reasons that 
if corks came out of other bottles this one ought to 
come out. If it refuses to come out at first, he studies 
the situation, and thinks perhaps a greater effort will 
accomplish it. When it is out he reasons that it be- 
longs in the bottle. If he cannot put it in, he thinks 
father or mother can do it, perhaps refusing all aid 
except from the one he has seen perform the operation 
before. His will power is seen in his determination 
to bring to pass the thing he set out to do, and in his 
holding on to things he wants but may not have. 

The child whom we are considering is supposed to 
have attained to the age of twelve or fifteen months. 
He is just learning to toddle about and investigate things 
for himself. All his mental powers have made a start 
and henceforth will be in operation to a greater or less 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 29 

degree in all his waking hours. His education is now 
begun in earnest. The time to develop anything, 
plant, animal, or mental power, is when it is growing; 
and the more cultivation and attention it receives the 
nearer it will come to reaching its greatest possible 
capacity, providing always that the process is carried 
on wisely by one who understands when and how to 
render assistance and when to refrain. This process 
of giving the right amount and kind of aid, of furnish- 
ing the proper materials for growth, of guiding and con- 
trolling sufficiently but not too much, includes the whole 
matter of teaching and training. 

Development in Progress. — From this time on, the 
child is getting into everything, investigating, appro- 
priating, and frequently destroying any article within 
reach. His attendants are provided with plenty of 
entertainment but no rest, except when he is asleep. 

His eating is an important matter. A healthy, grow- 
ing animal should eat whenever it is hungry, while on 
the other hand plenty of good food tends to keep it 
healthy and make it strong. A child should first of 
all be a perfect animal and to this end he should have 
plenty of good nourishing food about as often as nature 
demands it. This is the rule the world over. The food 
should be wholesome, easily digested, and nourishing. 
Further than that, this book has no advice to offer on 
the subject, except that in case of sickness a doctor 
should be consulted. 

The Moral Element. — That there is any moral qual- 



30 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ity in the actions of a child up to the age of two years 
is doubtful. He knows by this time that there are 
many things he must not do and some things he must 
do, but as to this or that being sinful, wicked, or wrong 
in itself he has no conception. His training in righteous- 
ness must not be neglected on that account however. 
It is very important that he should early understand 
his limitations. There are many things he must not 
do, and he should be firmly but kindly prevented from 
doing them. He must learn not to strike anyone, not to 
hurt the kitty, not to grab at things on the table; to be 
punctual and unfailing about his bath, his retiring, and 
all the other regulations of the family life. Right habits 
formed now and persevered in for a few years, will re- 
main through life and even grow to be a necessity for 
comfort. On the other hand if they are neglected now 
their establishment later will grow more and more 
difficult. 

Obedience. — There is probably no time in life when 
obedience may be so easily taught as in the first two 
or three years of life. No harsh methods need be used. 
A well thought-out course of procedure and persistence 
in that course is all that is necessary. In training a 
child to obedience nothing that is difficult should be 
commanded for a while until the idea has been grasped. 
If a child should set himself against authority the only 
course is to insist, quietly but firmly and without 
the least harshness, upon full and complete obedience. 
In time all idea of resisting parental authority will be 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 3 1 

given up completely after which there will be no trouble 
unless slackness intervenes on the parents' part. Here 
is where the wisdom of a wtU thought-out and con- 
sistently followed course manifests itself. 

The Value of Well Laid Plans. — The education of a 
child is worthy of a great amount of thoughtful con- 
sideration. One should think ahead what the child will 
require in the weeks, months, and years to come. These 
plans should be chiefly in outline and subject to modi- 
fication as the occasion demands. But no matter how 
much change they may undergo or how much they may 
need to be added to, they will be invaluable. No 
general plans can be made that would exactly fit any 
individual child. New phases of child life will appear 
and new ideas should constantly occur to be adjusted 
to the general outline. 

Agreement of Those Concerned. — It is needless to say 
that in all essential matters parents must agree in a 
course of training. It is certain that their opinions will 
differ in many particulars but these differences must 
be adjusted between themselves. It cannot be other- 
wise than disastrous to discipline when children dis- 
cover that their parents disagree on matters of conduct. 
When such disagreements arise, as they are likely to 
do, they must not result in conflicting methods. One 
must give up, bring the other to his or her vie^\'point, 
or a compromise must be effected. All the systems of 
government now in use in civilized- countries are the 
results of compromise, and so it should be in the family. 



32 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

In spite of the obvious necessity of such a course, many 
children are spoiled by parents attempting to carry out 
opposing systems. 

The Development of Emotions 

Children are often called little men and women; and 
in some respects the observation is true, but not in all. 
If one should be with a child every day until he is five 
years old he could not accurately predict what he will 
be at maturity. His powers are not sufficiently devel- 
oped at that age to enable us to judge of their later 
effect upon his character, neither can we tell the result 
which outside influences may have. But even at two 
years of age, most of his powers that will count for 
good or ill are noticeable. 

Who has not seen a little child exhibit anger in the 
most positive fashion? This trait appears so early 
and is so universal that many point to it as the main 
reason for believing in original sin. Whether original 
or not, it is like all the other powers, inherited, and is 
much more strongly implanted in some than in others. 
We could not say that the power to become angry 
should be rooted out, but certainly it needs no culti- 
vation. Older children, and thoughtless gro^\^l people, 
often tease a little child into anger for their own grati- 
fication but it is extremely costly to the child. When 
he is older he will have many a hard effort to control 
his temper, if indeed it does not cause him to inflict 
serious injury upon some one else. 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 33 

Excessive anger is injurious to anyone and especially 
so to a child. It interferes with his development along 
other and more desirable lines. Anger causes weakness 
and sometimes nausea in an adult, and must be a 
serious setback to a child. Parents should see to it 
that children should have little cause for anger and 
should try to allay it when it arises. Good humor is 
conducive to health and growth and should be the pre- 
vailing condition of a growing child. Both anger and 
cheerfulness are contagious, and if parents exhibit the 
latter the children will do likewise. The best antidote 
for anger is good humor. It cannot thrive nor last 
long in an atmosphere of sunny cheerfulness. 

Fear. — There are three senses that are alive to fear; 
hearing, touch, and sight. Fear is noticeable at a very 
early age, that is within a few weeks from birth. The 
touch of unknown hands, or the sound of a strange, 
harsh voice will produce fright. The faculty of fear 
is instinctive, since the child can know nothing of 
danger from experience or reasoning. Excessive fright, 
like anger, is unhealthful and dangerous and should 
be avoided. A child should be shielded from any ob- 
ject that arouses fear, however harmless the object 
may be, until he has time to examine it, get used to it 
and discover that it is not dangerous. 

Here again thoughtless people often amuse them- 
selves by frightening children, saying the bogy-man will 
catch them if they are not good, or that they will cut 
off their ears if they run away, or some such familiar 
3 



34 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

folly. Such a procedure is wicked in the extreme and 
deserves drastic measures that will prevent a repetition 
of the offense. There are things that children must be 
taught to avoid because they are really dangerous, 
such as fire, bodies of water, getting in the way of 
wagons or cars and the like, but all tales of ghosts, 
spooks and the "badman" are worse than useless as a 
means of discipline, and positively harmful to the mind 
because they arouse imaginary fears and inculcate 
cowardice. A child should be taught from the start 
to fear nothing except things that are really dangerous 
either to the body or to the mind. 

Deceit. — While all these qualities of the mind may be 
inherent they are certainly catching. If parents or 
nurses practice deceit upon the child, as is frequently 
done, he will soon discover it and will use the same 
means upon those who have deceived him. For ex- 
ample if he iinds that objects are being hidden from him 
he will in turn attempt to hide them to keep from los- 
ing possession. His efforts may be very awkward at 
first but he will soon learn, and'finally become an adept 
at deceit and treachery. A better way is to place for- 
bidden objects beyond his reach and tell him he must 
not have them. 

Losing Faith. — It must be a great shock to the mind 
of the child to discover that his parents have been de- 
ceiving him and telling him things that are not true. 
A child's credulity is perfect. It does not occur to him 
to doubt anything he sees or hears. If this faith is taken 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 35 

away from him he has lost one of the great charms of 
childhood. 

Irresponsible nurses are prone to falsify in order to 
appease the child or get away from him. Parents are 
usually more thoughtful, although they also sometimes 
err in this respect. It is so easy to tell a child you 
are not going to do this or that, and then when he 
is out of the way proceed to do it. The story is 
told of a certain little fellow who overheard his par- 
ents talking of going out riding and besought them to 
take him along. They had reasons for not wanting him, 
and therefore told him they w^ere not going, but that 
he might go walking with the nurse. A little later as 
the boy and his nurse approached a cross street they 
saw his parents riding with some friends. The little 
fellow's lips puckered and his fists clenched as he re- 
marked to the nurse, "There go the two biggest liars 
in the world." How much better it would have been 
to have told the child the truth and let him endure the 
disappointment of not going along rather than to cause 
him to suffer the loss of faith in his parents. 

Keeping Promises. — Another frequent departure from 
the right way is to make promises trusting that the 
child will forget them when his attention is turned to 
something else. He is not likely to forget, but if he 
should do so, the promise ought not to be broken. It 
is infinitely better not to promise than to fail to keep 
one ' s word with a child. The time will come soon enough 
when he will be asked to promise something and hav- 



36 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ing observed looseness on the part of his elders will 
keep faith or not as it suits him. If he decides that it 
does not matter, and fails to keep his word, his parents 
are forced into the absurd position of punishing him 
for following in their footsteps, or what is worse still, 
lose their control over him. Nothing but the unvar- 
nished truth pays in the long run. 

One of the strange things about lying to a child is 
that while he will condemn it in the severest terms he 
will unhesitatingly adopt the practice for his own use. 
He doubtless reasons that others have profited by 
lying and that he will do the same. Many a child 
would indorse the boy's answer to his Sunday School 
teacher when asked to tell the meaning of the word 
*'lie." "A lie," said the boy, "is an abomination to 
the Lord, and a very present help in time of trouble." 
It is inevitable that a child will sooner or later discover 
that lying is a common practice among humanity but 
he need not be pushed into the discovery. So long as 
his parents teach him truthfulness and practice it 
strictly themselves he is fairly safe. That boy was being 
rightly taught who when contradicted by a playmate 
declared, "I know it is so because my mother says 
it is, and if she says a thing is so, it is so even if it 
isn't so." 

The Result of Weak Discipline. — Probably more chil- 
dren are spoiled in disposition and rendered weak 
in will power by parents foolishly yielding to their 
imagined wants than from any other one fault in train- 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 37 

ing. Many children discover that if they fuss and fret 
and whine long enough they will carty their point, 
no matter how positively it may have been refused 
in the beginning. Examples of this kind of treatment 
are so well known that none is necessary here. The 
parent scolds, threatens, and occasionally slaps the 
besieger, causing a relapse for a minute or two until 
the storm is passed when the attack is renewed. Fi- 
nally the parent yields with a scold and a frown hoping 
the youngster will be satisfied and give her a little peace. 
Parents sometimes fondly imagine this persistence 
is an indication of a strong will and that it is on the 
whole rather commendable. Such is not the case. 
The child has simply discovered the parent's weak point 
and takes advantage of it. It is rather a weakening 
instead of a strengthening of the will, as the force of 
the example is very strong. Besides, there is a kind of 
philosophy in it. If the child really wants the thing 
he is asking for so badly and coaxes so long and so 
earnestly he ought to have it. He has quite earned it 
by his persistence. Such appears to be the parents' 
reasoning, but, none the less, it is very bad in its effect 
upon the child's character. 

The Right Course. — A child should be taught not to 
make needless requests. When he does express a want 
it should be given consideration before being granted 
or refused. The answer should be the wisest one the 
parent knows how to give and when given should be 
final. If the request is refused and the child cries let 



38 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

him cry or turn his attention to something else but do 
not change the decision. As soon as it is discovered 
that fretting and crying and coaxing do no good they 
will be abandoned. Children have vastly more re- 
spect for parents and teachers who show decision of 
character and firmness in their government than for 
those who are weak and vacillating. Moreover the 
exercise of these virtues on the part of the parents be- 
gets in the children the same strength of character. 

Curiosity. — Almost all children from two to five years 
of age are bundles of questions. Their persistence, 
the lack of necessity, and the apparent irrelevancy of 
their queries are often annoying. But remember that 
the child is making an effort to become acquainted 
with the world around him, and he can only fmd out 
the things he does not know by asking and being told. 
Many of his questions are about things that do not 
concern him, or about things he could not understand 
or are in themselves insignificant, but he ought not to 
be discouraged in asking them. 

As has been suggested, his chief desire at first is to 
know the names of things. This is important because 
he can remember an object, think about it, and talk 
about it to much better advantage if he knows what to 
call it. Consequently the name of anything he asks 
about should be given him, not in baby talk but in ex- 
act terms as grown people use it. There should be no 
tricks played upon a child's desire to obtain information. 
He will do his best to speak the name as it was given 



THE PERIOD 01'' ACQUAINTANCE 39 

him and the oftener he hears it correctly the sooner he 
will be able to master it. 

After many names have been acquired and he begins 
to comprehend a little the uses of objects he will arrive 
at his second prevailing question, " What is it for?" 
This oft repeated question varies with, " What are 
you doing that for? " and is more annoying than his 
search for names. But it shows a natural and legiti- 
mate desire for knowledge that should not be ignored. 
Doubtless the best plan is to tell the inquirer what a 
thing is for. He may not understand the answer and 
his next question may be, "What do the people want 
to do that for? " or some similar interrogation, until 
the one questioned is at wits' end to know how to ex- 
plain. It takes a deal of patience and much wisdom to 
guide the little one in his search for knowledge but the 
rev/ard is great. 

This element of curiosity in a child's nature is of 
inestimable value. Without it his progress would be 
slow indeed. IMoreover it is not confined to childhood. 
The whole world is on tiptoe with curiosity to hear the 
latest news, to know what is being done, to find out 
about the things that are unknown. Curiosity in a 
child needs no quenching but careful nurturing and 
guidance to keep it in the path that chiefly concerns 
him and that will lead him the most rapidly into an 
acquaintance with the things that pertain to his life. 

Use Correct Language. — A child's efforts at pronunci- 
ation are so amusing and so delightful that it is a great 



40 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

temptation to use his pronunciation instead of the cor- 
rect one. This use of "baby talk" must be very con- 
fusing to the child. He makes the best effort in his 
power to speak a word as it was spoken to him, and to 
hear thereafter his owm inaccuracy instead of the cor- 
rect form is certainly poor assistance. It doubtless 
gives parents pleasure to use baby talk but the child 
will make much more rapid progress if the correct 
forms are used. If this is not done he will be compelled 
to learn in a roundabout way. He will, by and by, ob- 
serve that people when not talking to him use different 
forms than when they are and that the other forms are 
the correct ones. In this manner he finally gets his 
words right, but it is a long process. 

The Sensitiveness of Children. — There is no surer way 
to destroy a child's confidence and to quench his thirst 
for knowledge than to laugh at his awkward attempts 
either in speaking or in performing his tasks. A child 
supposes, as he has a right to do, that every one is his 
friend and in sympathy with him, and when he is 
laughed at he is chagrined and mortified and loses con- 
fidence in himself. Thereafter he will not "perform" 
in the presence of those who laugh at him or whom he 
thinks may laugh at him, and consequently his freedom 
is curtailed and his progress hindered. To make the mat- 
ter worse this kind of treatment causes a child to become 
suspicious of all except those whom he knows he can 
trust and suspicion in a little child is far from desirable. 

Laughing at Children's Blunders. — Children with the 



THE PERIOD OF ACQUAINTANCE 4 1 

best intentions make amusing blunders and the grown- 
ups relate them to their friends and laugh heartily, con- 
sidering it matter for mirth. Two little country girls 
were on their way to a neighbor's a mile away. They 
were met by a gentleman who spoke to them and asked 
in a friendly way if it was noon yet. Now these little 
girls were accustomed to hearing the word "noon" used 
at school in connection with the long intermission, but 
at home they had only heard the term "dinner time" 
used to designate the middle of the day; so the very 
natural reply was, "We don't know, we haven't been 
to school to-day." The gentleman smiled and passed 
on. When the little girls returned home they related 
the incident to the assembled family but were after- 
wards sorry they did it. It was considered the finest 
joke of the season and it was many a long day before 
they heard the last of it. There is no doubt but 
that this incident increased the reticence of those 
children to a marked degree, and they were timid 
enough before. A reasonable amount of timidity is 
pleasing, but country children are likely to have an 
abundance of it and should not have their courage to 
answer a civil question crushed out by being laughed at. 
Repeating the Smart Sayings of Children. — The prone- 
ness of parents and especially new parents to recount 
the smart sayings and doings of their prodigies is so 
common that it has passed into a proverb and become 
the subject of newspaper jokes. In spite of this, hosts 
of children are injured by it and notwithstanding its 



42 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

time-worn proclivities it needs a word of caution here. 
The Joke Hes in the fact that the child which is con- 
sidered a prodigy in the eyes of his doting parents is no 
smarter than most other children, and the listener is 
usually bored by the recital of his wonderful cuteness 
and remains unconvinced of his superior intelligence. 

The fond interest of parents in their child would 
readily excuse them for making him a topic of con- 
versation among their friends if that were the end of 
it, as frequently it is not. Too often these remarks 
are made in the presence of the child. At first he may 
be too young to catch the drift of the conversation, but 
very soon he perceives that he is being discussed, and 
the love of praise takes root in his mind when he is al- 
together too young to bear it. The road to ruin is 
strewn with the wrecks of young lives that were brought 
there by being placed in the lime light by admiring 
parents whose pride in their offspring made it diflficult 
for them to see the folly of their own actions. 

There are some very old-fashioned notions about 
child training that even the most modern schools of 
thought have not entirely obliterated, and one is that 
children should be kept in the background. This does 
not mean that they should be snuffed out from every 
public occasion, but that care should be taken lest they 
conceive too high an idea of their own importance. A 
modest estimate of one's own powers is admirable in 
both old and young, but the reverse is objectionable in 
anyone, and particularly so in the latter. 



CHAPTER III 
MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 

Play. — The young of all the higher animals instinct- 
ively engage in play. It is nature's method of preparing 
them to meet the requirements of adult life. Aside 
from the point of utility there is nothing that so con- 
tributes to their happiness as the free exercise of their 
budding powers in this divine gift. When little ones 
play together, as it is much better that they should, 
all their powers of body and mind are brought into 
action. Their senses are on the alert and their minds 
are keen to take in everything of interest. 

There are two fundamental principles in respect to 
play. The first is that it should be in the open air or in 
rooms where the air is as pure as out of doors. The 
second is that they should have materials to play with. 
In regard to the first, children should come into contact 
with mother earth at an early age and become so used 
to it that under ordinary conditions it will not harm 
them. When the weather is suitable they should have 
a place in the yard where they may roam at will, all 
dangerous obstructions being removed. 

Frequently in rainy weather children are obliged to 
remain indoors. For such occasions it would be very 

43 



44 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

easy in country homes to provide a play house. The 
essential parts are walls, roof, door, and windows. The 
earth cleaned and packed hard and firm will be the best 
floor. If the walls are constructed of logs so much the 
better. Here will be passed many happy hours. If 
materials are provided in the rough the children will 
construct their own shelves and housekeeping arrange- 
ments. There should be cross beams so that swings 
can be fastened to them. The whole need cost but 
little except the time and labor of off hours. For cold 
weather a room in the house should be set aside, con- 
taining only such things as the children may use. 

In regard to the second principle, with the exception 
of a few simple tools no costly materials are needed. 
A wagon load of clean sand, a few shingles and boards, 
with some rope for swings, will answer well for a begin- 
ning. Home-made articles constructed mainly by the 
children themselves are the best. Their observation 
of how father makes things for the farm and how mother 
does things in the house will be of service. Memory 
must suffice when the article to be copied is not present, 
and imagination will be active in making adjustments 
and contriving improvements. 

As soon as children are old enough to handle tools 
they should be provided with such as they can con- 
veniently use. A hammer, a barlow knife and a small 
saw will go a long way and will work wonders. Not 
everything that would be desirable to grown-ups should 
be supplied. Something should be lacking to give in- 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 45 

genuity free play. Suggestions may occasionally be 
offered and directions given but not too often and only 
one or two at a time. So long as children are completely 
occupied with their own contrivances they need no 
assistance or advice. When they have reached the end 
of their own resources and tire of the old regime it is 
time to come to the rescue. Parents should take a 
lively interest in their children's doings. Half the charm 
of their little triumphs lies in the appreciation of their 
elders. 

The Lone Child. — If a child has no playmates near 
his own age it is all the more reason why he should be 
well supplied with opportunities for play. In such a 
case his parents should be playmates for him permitting 
him to be the leader as much as possible. They should 
plan ahead, however, and when old things pall have 
something new to suggest. One's resources may last a 
long time if he does not deal them out too rapidly. 
To be the companion of a child is a rich privilege, and 
the study and attention given him will be well repaid. 

Games. — In the matter of games the world is old. 
No one knows when the ball was first used as a play- 
thing and marbles have been a part of the sports of 
youth for thousands of years. Many household games 
extend back to the time when "the memory of man 
runneth not to the contrary." Such are Mother Goose 
Rhymes, Counting Baby's Toes, Hide and Seek, and 
Blind Man's Buff. These and many others that have 
stood the test of age are not likely to die out. Yet new 



46 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

games are desirable and may be invented by any clever- 
minded person; or old ones may be modified to make 
them more interesting after they have been used for 
some time. Children are such lovers of play that they 
are not hard to please and in many instances invent 
their own games. 

What constitutes a game? Any organized play with 
something to be won or attained may be called a 
game. Throwing at a mark, pitching quoits, ring toss, 
tag, rolling a hoop are examples of very simple games 
that are old and still popular. The chief point of in- 
terest in these is the skill or swiftness required of the 
player to outdo his competitors. In fact the basic 
element in games is rivalry, to win over one's competitors 
by skill, knowledge, or strength. There are sports, 
scarcely to be called games, that do not depend upon 
rivalry for their fascination, as skating, dancing and 
swimming, though in these that element may become 
the leading factor. 

There should be some discrimination in children's 
games to see that physical and mental exercises are 
in proper proportion. Much of their playing should 
be out of doors where they may exercise their limbs, 
lungs, and bodies to the fullest extent. Even games of 
running, jumping, and swinging have some effect upon 
mental development. They require attention and con- 
tinued effort. They develop the qualities of assurance 
and quickness. They teach endurance of fatigue and 
pain and forbearance with one another. Still they are 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 47 

classed as physical games and should be interspersed 
with those that are strictly mental. 

For very young children nurser}^ rhymes, motion 
and marching songs, and riddles cultivate the attention 
and the memory. Playing with dolls, housekeeping, 
moulding mud pies, imitating the work of their elders 
in an}^ way are all fruitful in mental growth, and parents 
should show an interest in them. Playing is about 
the only business children have in waking hours and 
it is better to expend some effort in planning for them 
and helping them than to be forever scolding, forbid- 
ding, and punishing. 

Proper Clothing. — One of the earliest proclivities of 
childhood is acquiring dirt, soihng the clothing, and 
getting it torn. Mothers are wont to start the day with 
things clean and nice, bidding the children keep them 
so as long as possible. Some even go so far as to forbid 
any playing on the ground or the doing of anything 
that will soil their clean clothes. As well put a healthy 
energetic man into prison! To play is a child's freedom 
as it is a man's freedom to work or engage in whatever 
pursuit he likes. 

Play is much more important in the life of a child 
than looks. His clothing for everyday wear should 
be plain and comfortable, not easily soiled and of good 
material. He should be allowed to play on the ground 
unless it is muddy or cold. If his clothes are soiled 
it is no great matter. Soiled clothing is of little con- 
sequence. It can be made clean again; but deprivation 



48 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

of healthful exercise means loss of strength, develop- 
ment, and happiness, and this loss is not so easily 
remedied. 

For a further discussion of games and plays, see 
"Teaching a District School," Chapter XII. 

Stories. — Next to play, sometimes in preference to it, 
is the pleasure of childhood in listening to stories. It 
may be remarked that this pleasure is not peculiar 
to childhood but continues scarcely unabated through 
Ufe. But it comes into being very early and is a wide 
open avenue to learning. It is to be regretted that the 
accomplishment of telling sfories suitable for children 
is not universal among parents. No doubt the ability 
is universal but in too many cases it is allowed to re- 
main undeveloped. If children had the privilege of 
prescribing the qualities of their parents one among 
the first would be the power to tell a story to their 
satisfaction. 

If any parent who chances to read this desires to 
master the art of story telling it is not so very difficult. 
The easiest method of attack is to read over several 
times the one selected to begin with until thoroughly 
familiar with it, then tell it in the best manner possible, 
putting it in words that the child can readily under- 
stand. If the first effort is not an entire success keep 
on trying. Children as a rule are not overly critical 
and the art is soon learned. 

The Kind of Stories. — Among the best stories in the 
world for children are those of the Old Testament. 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 49 

They should early learn about God, and as good a way 
as any is to tell them the Bible story of how God made 
the world and peopled it with life, first the plants and 
the animals, last of all man. Tell them the good things 
first and a little later when some occasion of naughti- 
ness makes it appropriate tell them how sin came into 
the world, the loss of Eden, and finally murder. The 
progress of evil in the world will lead on to the story 
of Noah and the flood. Then there are the delightful 
stories of Joseph, of Moses, of David, and of Daniel. 

We have some fine examples as proof that in the way 
of instruction the story telling method is the best. 
The first is that of Christ, the greatest of all teachers. 
He was master of the art, as witness the story of the 
Prodigal Son, the Good Samaritan and many others. 
Plato is perhaps the next great example. His stories 
are so vastly inferior to those of the Saviour that they 
are hardly to be mentioned in the same category, but 
they taught the youth of Athens the cardinal virtues 
as they have of many other nations since. 

The stories of the New Testament follow in logical 
order those of the Old. What could be better than that 
a child should have the story of the birth of Christ 
for the first time on Christmas eve? It is the world's 
most beautiful story and the occasion and the manner 
of telling should be such as to make an indelible im- 
pression. Simply and in child language, the story should 
be told supplying enough details to make the picture 
vivid, leaving out the prophecies concerning his birth 
4 



50 TPIE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

and all references to his sacrificial death, so that there 
may remain in the mind the wonderful birth of the one 
who was the greatest and best of all mankind. 

This story will be called for again and again and 
should be told and retold, each time adding some new 
incident gradually carrying the story forward until 
much of the life of the Saviour shall be familiar to the 
child. ^ladonnas and other pictures of the Christ 
and his times should accompany this instruction. These 
can be purchased at any cost from a penny upwards 
and will be of great assistance. 

Children like to have stories repeated frequently for 
two reasons. First it affords exercise for the imagina- 
tion in constructing the scenes and in filling in the de- 
tails as they are given, and second it gives memor}^ 
an opportunity to fix the whole in the mind for future 
use. Mental exercise gives as much pleasure, or per- 
haps more, as physical exercise and is as essential 
to growth. Or it may be illustrated in another way. 
Knowledge is food for the mJnd and the mind can no 
more grow without it than can the body without its 
food. Also there is as much mental gratification in 
imbibing knowledge as there is physical pleasure in 
receiving nourishment for the body. 

The idea that children are averse to learning is en- 
tirely wrong. They are no more averse to learning 
than they are averse to eating. If we should insist 
upon stuffing their stomachs when they are not hungry 
with food that they do not like and is not suitable to 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 5 1 

their age and digestion we should find them as much op- 
posed to eating as they appear at times to be to learning. 
The fault lies in the kind of pabulum we serve and in 
our Avay of serving it rather than in any aversion to 
learning itself. Herein lies our need of a closer study of 
childhood and of Nature's way of contributing to growth. 
Nature provides the stories, all we have to do is to 
learn to put them in words suitable to the minds of 
our hearers. 

Other Stories. — While the Bible is a mine of riches to 
the instructor of youth, its principal use is not to fur- 
nish stories for children, consequently there are other 
sources. History, without any intention or desire of 
doing so, furnishes a never ending supply. Poetry and 
fiction abound with illustrations of heroism, fidelity, 
and all the other virtues. Besides there are books, and 
their name is legion, that are written especially for 
children. Many of these are comparatively worthless 
but a considerable number have proved worthy of a 
place among the classics, have become a part of the 
wealth of the world, a heritage for all generations. These 
or some of them should be available to all who are 
intrusted with the bringing up of children. 

Fables and Fairy Stories. — Every scholar or would-be 
scholar is familiar with the Fables of ^Esop; not that 
^sop was the first to use fables or the originator of 
msinj of them, but that his collection or version so far 
excelled all others that it became a classic. According 
to these fables human nature has not changed much 



52 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

in the last three or four thousand years. Hypocrisy, 
deceit, cheating, and lying have a prominent place but 
virtue is superior to them all. What a delightful way 
to teach the principles of righteousness! How much 
more real and comprehensible to the mind of a child 
is a truth when expressed in fable than when stated in 
abstract terms. 

Whoever invented the fable as a means ot teaching 
understood child nature and was in thorough sympathy 
with it. What could be more to Ihe children's liking 
than to bring in the animals and give them the char- 
acteristics of human beings? How well, too, the ani- 
mals lend themselves to the occasion. The cunning 
of the fox, the treachery of the wolf, the masterful 
strength of the lion are all typical of human traits. 
The inventor of fables also understood animals, for 
each one is presented in his real character. The fables 
are a veritable study in natural history. 

Fairy stories differ from fables in that the latter are 
based upon real things while the former are purely 
products of the mind. Size appeals readily to the imagi- 
nation of a child. He likes to think of things as very 
large or very small, hence the practicability of fairies 
and giants. Little people are not very strong, but they 
are bright and cunning and have ways of managing 
the grown-ups in spite of the latter's superior strength 
and wisdom. There seems to be some mysterious 
power that stands by the little ones and makes them 
irresistible. So the fairies are bright, animated little 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 53 

creatures, dancing upon the moonbeams, disappearing 
in the shadows and always having a good time. They 
are the especial friends of good children, sympathizing 
with their griefs and helping them out of their troubles 
by the intervention of some mysterious power. They 
appeal to the childish heart because they are so much 
like children themselves. 

On the other hand, the giant appeals to the child 
because he is what the latter will be when he grows up 
or what he would like to be. He is possessed of un- 
limited strength and fears nothing. He lives in some 
great cave or huge castle and commands everything 
about him. He may be a good giant or he may be a 
bad one, just as the fanc}^ determines. He may be 
created for the very purpose of being put out of the 
way by some daring adventurer who overcomes him 
by superior wit. This shows the superiority of a trained 
mind over brute strength. Jack the Giant Killer is a 
fine example. The giant was one of the earliest won- 
ders among the races of men, and the world has pretty 
well retained its admiration for him. 

In all these there is no deceit practiced upon the 
child. He knows, or may as well know, that they are 
creatures of the imagination, playfellows of the brain. 
They have given pleasure to millions of children and 
have been a potent factor in the development of their 
mental powers. Children take to them as naturally as 
young animals to play. When a colt sends its heels 
flying in the air, is it not striking at an imaginary foe? 



54 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

And why should not a boy slay his giants and a little 
girl have her fairies to assist in banishing her woes? 

To be sure this kind of material should be used in 
moderation. Its very fascination may lead to excess 
and to harm. It must not be allowed to take the place 
of ever^'day realities. But as was said in the beginning, 
the mind is many sided and needs a variety if it is to 
come into the full possession of all its possibilities. 
The imagination when brought to its full strength is a 
mighty power, a divine gift to m^an that places him far 
above the brute creation. It needs to be cultivated in 
early life if one would get above the narrow limits 
of the commonplace. There is little doubt that stories 
of the mind's own creation minister to its grov\'th in 
a way that the more prosaic matters cf real life can- 
not. 

A Time for Stories. 

" Between the dark and the daylight 
When the night is beginning to lower, 
Comes a pause in the day's occupations 
That is known as the Children's Hour." 

Longfellow evidently believed in devoting a portion 
of each day to the children and this portion not left to 
hap-hazard, or to the exigencies of other duties, but 
clearly specified, set apart and kept sacredly. And if 
one may judge from the poem, it was the most delight- 
ful period of the day to him as well as to the children. 
So important a matter as the children's story, or the 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 55 

child's story as the case may be, should have a set time 
that is least likely to be interrupted. Certainly it will 
not be neglected if the children have a voice in it. " Be- 
t^veen the dark and the daylight" is probably the ideal 
hour for the little ones and the most convenient one 
for the parents. 

Considerable time should be given to selection and 
arrangement so that there may be a variety in kind 
and puriDose. A program for a month at a time will 
be helpful, but one mmst not hold too strictly to a pro- 
gram. Some incident of the day will make some particu- 
lar story applicable, some special lesson of truth or 
obedience needs to be taught and the time and place 
will serve to make it doubly impressive. 

Music. — Every observer of human nature knows that 
there is a wonderful, if not a magical power in music. 
The m.other soothes her restless child with her lullaby 
when it is but a tin}' infant; and as day follows day into 
weeks, months, and years the tones grow sweeter, and 
the memor}' of that mother's voice is cherished as long 
as life endures. David, the shepherd lad, charmed away 
the spirits of evil from King Saul by playing upon his 
haqD. Music is the art of arts, the most universal 
of them all. It plays an important part in the savage 
tribe as well as in the most civilized community. 

It ministers to every passion of the heart. It com- 
forts the mourner, gives strength to the flagging foot- 
steps of the weary marcher, wooes the love of the maiden 
and incites the warrior to deeds of heroism. It is an 



56 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

instrument of good or an instrument of evil. It is a 
potent factor in the worship of the Divine Being in the 
sanctuary, and a powerful incentive to evil in the dens 
of the wicked. It has been well said that the songs of a 
nation have more to do in shaping the lives and morals 
of the people than its laws. 

In the training of character so important a factor 
as music must not be overlooked. As has been al- 
ready suggested its power to soothe the infant mind is 
marked. This susceptibility to the charms of music 
increases with the growing powers of the child. The 
kind of songs he hears in childhood cannot but make a 
deep impression upon his mind that will tell in character 
in the years to come. Everything that is worthy may 
be expressed in song, as work and play, rest and wor- 
ship, but anything that appeals to the baser passions 
should never be heard. 

The kindergartens, the primary schools, and the Sun- 
day schools have contributed bountifully, and to a 
large extent wisely, to the furnishing of songs for chil- 
dren. Yet the supply in the countr)/- schools and in 
the homes of our land is far from sufficient. Just where 
the fault lies it is difficult to say. Perhaps it is chiefly 
because it has not been required as an exercise in the 
country schools. Nearly all city schools have instruc- 
tion in the rudiments of singing, as a part of their curric- 
ula, and a special teacher or corps of teachers; but such 
a thing as instruction in vocal music is rarely to be 
found in country schools. 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 57 

Teachers who have been taught to sing and who en- 
joy it, usually indulge in one or two songs at opening 
exercises but give no instruction in the rudiments. 
Many make no pretense of singing, whatever, and easily 
excuse themselves on the ground that they are not 
musicians. In fact they look upon it as an unimpor- 
tant matter and consider themselves about as well fitted 
for their occupation as they need to be. 

Our state legislatures that have not yet done so 
should take the matter up and make the teaching of 
vocal music one of the requirements in every school. 
Every candidate for a county certificate should be 
required to pass an examination, not only as to his 
knowledge of the rudiments of vocal music but as to 
his ability to sing. When this is done some attention 
will be given to singing in the country schools; but so 
long as it is not required we cannot look for much 
improvement. When it has been made a law in the 
schools, books and songs will quickly find their way 
into the homes, and in a generation household singing 
will be much more common and children will be better 
off in this respect than they now are. 

The time to teach a child to sing is early in life. 
Long before the little one can speak plainly he will be 
able to carry a simple tune, provided he is given the 
opportunity to learn. A good many people consider 
themselves incapable of learning to sing. They hold 
to the opinion that music is a gift and that only a 
limited number of people are endowed with it. This 



58 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

is an error that is altogether too common. JMusic is no 
more a special gift than mathem.atics. There are prodi- 
gies in both and dullards in both, and minds that repre- 
sent every stage between these two extremes. But as 
every one who is taken in time can become reasonably 
proficient in mathematics, so every one can become 
reasonably proficient in music, but the instruction and 
the effort to learn must not be put off until maturity. 

Religion. — ]Man's spiritual po\vers are doubtless in 
the germ at birth but do not appear so early nor develop 
so rapidly as his mental and physical powers. Still, a 
child of two or three years of age is quite capable of re- 
ceiving religious instruction. The spiritual nature 
like the other powers should be cultivated all through 
its development period. Too frequently the spiritual 
side of a child's life is left to take care of itself. It can 
no more come to its best possibilities by neglect than 
can the others, while its importance certainly entitles 
it to equal attention. 

It is customary in dealing with the powers of man to 
divide them into physical, mental, and spiritual. There 
is no doubt but that any one of these can be cultivated 
to the neglect of the others, or two of them to the neg- 
lect of one. This often happens. When the physical 
is highly developed and the others neglected, we have 
the human brute, the most striking example of which 
is the prize fighter. When the mental powers are culti- 
vated to the utmost and the spiritual wholly left out 
of consideration, we have the mental giant, one who 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 59 

probably denies the existence of the spiritual and scoffs 
at religion. ]\Iany people of the best intentions are 
led astray in their thinking by this t}'pe of individual. 
If the reason for his peculiarity were understood and 
admitted he would largely be ■ shorn of his power to 
do harm. The result of a one-sided training is per- 
fectly simple and in accord with the laws of nature. 
"As a man sows so shall he reap." If he sows mental 
seed he cannot expect from it to reap a spiritual har- 
vest. It is likewise a law of nature that if any growing 
thing be deprived of its nourishment, if other and more 
vigorous growths take from it its share of soil and sun- 
shine, it will make a feeble effort for life, then atrophy 
and finally die. The only strange thing about it is that 
parents and teachers will permit themselves to make 
such a fatal mistake. 

Once again, the spiritual nature may be cultivated at 
the expense of one or both of the others. In this case 
we have the fanatic, the faddist, the ultra-religionist, 
the promoter of isms and cults. This type is prob- 
ably the most dangerous of all as he has religion without 
reason, enthusiasm without thought, and can induce 
a large number of unthinking people to accept his doc- 
trines. The only safe course is to give proper and 
reasonable attention to body, mind, and spirit, not to 
push any to excess, and to wait patiently for results. 

Religious instructions should go hand in hand with 
story telling, as was suggested under that topic. Along 
with the Bible stories and others of a religious nature 



6o THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the child will ask many questions in his efforts at com- 
prehension. These should be answered truthfully and 
candidly and expressed as nearly as possible in terms 
of his experience so that he will not become confused. 
Deep questions of theology and the everlasting punish- 
ment of bad children are out of place and should be 
avoided. The m^ain point is that a child should be 
taught to believe in God, in his care over us, to speak 
his name reverently, to worship him as our creator, and 
to love him as our heavenly father. These with obedi- 
ence to his commandments, as we come to know and 
understand them, are the fundamental principles of re- 
ligion. 

Forms of Worship. — Much of our religious worship is 
of necessity carried on by means of forms and ceremo- 
nies. These are sometimes spoken against by cynical 
minded people as empty and useless. It is true they do 
not in themselves constitute worship, but it is just as 
true that they are a help to worship. A kneeling pos- 
ture, clasped hands, closed eyes and upturned face, or 
bowed head, tend to put one in a devotional frame of 
mind. A beautiful and well-appointed church, a silent 
and reverent audience, a saintly minister, a deep-toned 
organ have a solemnizing effect, suggesting the presence 
of God and the duty of man to worship him. 

There is something fitting as well as beautiful in a 
child kneeling at his mother's knee, night and morning, 
to offer his prayers. A youth may wander far from the 
paths of righteousness but he can never forget th 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 6 1 

prayers of his childhood. But one need not go astray 
to appreciate these memories. They are a consolation 
to the good as well as to the evil, A good deal should 
be made of the hour of prayer in a child's life. If it is 
attended to carelessly, or in a hurry, the impression 
made will not be for the best. The child himself 
will come to the conclusion that it is not important 
and drop the habit when the responsibility rests upon 
him. 

Singing should compose a part of the child's worship. 
There are some beautiful little hymns for children 
that have done splendid service in helping to form the 
character of many noble minded men and women. 
The Lord's Prayer and many of the Psalms can like- 
wise be sung with pleasure and profit. 

The Influence of Pictures. — Usefulness and happiness 
are the ideals of life. In the life of a child, happiness and 
preparation for usefulness cover the ground. A child's 
happiness can only come from external sources. He 
cannot amuse himself or occupy his time unless he is 
provided with m.aterials. He has no problems waiting 
for solution nor memories to fall back upon for enter- 
tainment. His reflections are generally expended upon 
concrete objects that are close at hand. His wants may 
be very simple but they are immediate and constant. 
What a blessing are pictures in contributing to his happi- 
ness! A childhood without pictures would have many 
^ dreary waste within its boundaries. Fortunately the 
Wipply is equal to the demand. With a little pains and 



62 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

a trifling outlay of money, both of which are of no im- 
portance in proportion to the resuhs, a sufficient number 
of suitable pictures can be obtained. 

Pictures of animals, of children, of life in any right- 
ful way are pleasing to the little ones, and so many les- 
sons of usefulness can be taught that one need not stop 
to specify in particular, unless it be to say that ideals 
are perhaps oftenest found in this way. If you want a 
child to be interested in any phase of life you have but 
to keep him supplied with pictures of it, furnishing 
necessary explanations from time to time, and your 
desire is pretty certain to be realized. If you wish yodr 
child to become like some great character in histor}-, 
secure the best likeness possible of that character, 
weave about it stories of his life, and the effect is cer- 
tain to be marked. Hawthorne's story of the Great 
Stone Face is a fine illustration of this fact. 

There is a story of a woman whose sailor husband 
was lost at sea leaving her three sons to bring up. She 
was determined that these sons should have some other 
occupation and so moved far inland where the charms 
of the sea could not tempt them. Notwithstanding 
her precautions, the boys thought, talked, and dreamed 
of the sea. The oldest as he approached manhood 
ran away and became a sailor. The second followed a 
few years later and it seemed certain, in spite of her 
tears and prayers and entreaties, that the youngest 
would follow their example. The distracted mother 
sought the counsel of her pastor. "Have you anything 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 63 

about the house," inquired he, "that would be sug- 
gestive of the sea?" "Nothing," rephed the woman, 
"except a picture." "What kind of a picture?" was 
the next question. "It is a picture of the sea that my 
husband brought home many years ago. He was very 
fond of it and 1 have not parted with it for his sake." 
"That," declared the pastor, "explains why your sons 
went to sea. The silent influence of that picture 
aroused a passion for the sea in their young minds 
that was too strong for parental restraint." 

The woman if she had been wiser might have kept the 
picture and her sons, too. The trouble was that it was 
the only picture they had for their contemplation. If 
they had been supplied with a dozen or a score of others, 
showing different phases of life, the one would not have 
pulled so strongly. As it was they had no other choice 
and were powerless in the grasp of that one idea. 

The Value of Travel. — If children are to make the ac- 
quaintance of the world they must not be confined 
wholly to one place. They must have a look now and 
then outside of their usual environment. A child will 
learn more in one day of travel than in a week at home. 
Eyes and ears are open for every sight and sound. A 
ten mile ride, to one who has seldom been beyond the 
garden wall, is about what a trip to Europe is to the 
average adult. Country children should be allowed 
frequently to go to town wdth their parents. They 
should see enough of town, life by the time they are 
ten years of age to* prevent their appearing timid or 



64 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

gawky when invited to spend a day with their town. 
cousins. 

Any new place that is different from the home sur- 
roundings will be interesting. If a child sees something 
that attracts his attention and wonders at it, he should 
not be pooh-poohed at by his elders who have seen 
something bigger. Let him have his full satisfaction of 
enjoyment out of it as long as he may. The notion 
that there is nothing interesting around here is too prev- 
alent. It often happens that children who live in the 
mountains never see any beauty in them and wonder 
how strangers can; and the same is true of those who 
live upon the plains or in a rolling country. 

The love of the beautiful is deeply implanted in the 
human heart. Our Divine Parent has been most munif- 
icent in supplying the means of enjoyment for his 
children, but like all other good things they are not 
always on the surface. To perceive the best things 
requires a cultivated mind. "The ]\Ian with the Hoe" 
can see no glory in the sunset nor beauty in the wild 
flowers at his feet. If he could he would not be "The 
Man with the Hoe," stupid, dull, and "brother to the 
ox." This man was surrounded with beauty, the sky, 
the woods, the flowers and the fields, but they were 
never pointed out to him, at least not in his childhood, 
else his soul would have awakened and responded to 
their call. 

What is insisted upon here is that children should 
be taught to appreciate the commoner things of hfe, 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 65 

the things they can see and investigate for themselves. 
Extensive travel is out of the question for the majority 
of children and it might not prove an unmixed blessing 
if it were not. All things in moderation is a good guide 
in training the young. It does not mean that the best 
things of life are to be withheld, but it means that they 
are to be supplied only as they can be appreciated and 
utilized, and when some are not available others must be 
made to take their places. The child is to be pitied who 
has had gifts and amusements lavished upon him be- 
yond his needs, who frets and pines and renders himself 
and everybody around him unhappy because he cannot 
think of anything he really wants. Unnatural and un- 
timely desires are created and pandered to by parents 
who have more money than knowledge. Then when 
in the natural course of events the time is ripe for these 
things they are an old story and do not satisfy. A boy 
should not have a watch until he needs one, nor a pony 
until he can take care of it and use it with safety. 

Children's Industries. — As this part of our book deals 
with children under school age there is not much to be 
said about industries. Up to school age the child keeps 
the parents busy attending to his wants. After that 
the conditions may be gradually reversed. There are 
some things, however, that a child from three to five 
can do that will not interfere with his growth or with 
his happiness and will add to his stock of knowledge 
and increase his skillfulness. 

A very small child can bring father his slippers, 

5 



66 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

hand him a paper or a book, can wait upon mother 
in many little ways and save her a multitude of steps. 
Children take delight in watching things done and in 
doing small errands to help along. Care should be 
taken not to cut the child off from play too frequently, 
nor to overdo the matter to the extent of making work 
distasteful. This overdoing is most likely to happen 
in homes where there is a baby to mind. Many an 
oldest child has had cause to regret that otherwise 
enviable position by being made a slave to younger 
brothers or sisters. This is no imaginary evil but a 
very real one. Baby becomes so fond of sister, and 
sister's services are such a relief to mother, that between 
the two, sister's time is taken up, the freedom of child- 
hood is lost and life becomes a burden. 

Tools, blocks, and boards have been mentioned be- 
fore in connection with the playhouse. After- some 
skill in their use has been acquired, and hand and eye 
have learned a little to work together, simple instruction 
should be given in cutting to pattern or to measure, 
in joining and fitting. Small utensils, handles, boxes, 
boats, anything that the surroundings suggest and that 
is easy of construction, may be made according to speci- 
fications. Toys such as tops, whistles, sleds, and wagons 
will furnish a variety. 

Gardening. — Plant knowledge may have its beginning 
quite early. The child may watch the watering and 
tending of window plants and flowers and when his 
interest has been aroused his attention can be called to 



MATERIALS FOR INSTRUCTION 67 

their growth and flowering and he can observe their 
development from day to day. He will learn that plants 
must have soil, water, and sunshine; that tiny shoots 
come up, grow, bud and blossom; that care and regu- 
larity of attention are essential to their well-being. 

From this it will be an easy step to the cultivation 
of garden plants, fruits, and vegetables. After he has 
watched the operation of planting, tending and gather- 
ing a few times and has under directions had some share 
in them, he may be permitted to undertake the culti- 
vation of one or more plants by himself. If the child 
requests the privilege for himself, so much the better. 
If he does not, the idea may be suggested to his mind 
by telling or reading a story of some other child doing 
a like work. The desire should be in his mind ; he should 
anticipate pleasure in tending and watching and per- 
haps being rewarded in finally producing flower or fruit 
as a result of his efforts, just as he has seen from the 
efforts of his elders. 

He should be furnished the proper space and mate- 
rials, and his questions should be answered. Aside from 
these he should be placed upon his own responsibility 
except that in case he grows careless and neglectful 
he may be told that his plant will not do well or will die 
if he does not attend to its wants. In no case should 
he be urged with a threat that if this plant is neglected 
he will not get another. Tell him his little plant is 
thirsty and will die if it does not get a drink, that 
it is hungry for fresh soil and will not grow well unless 



68 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

it gets it. If this docs not suffice, let him suffer the 
consequences that every one must suffer under like 
circumstances, the loss of flower or fruit. That is a 
natural punishment and should be sufficient to cause 
him to do better another time. The appreciation of 
his loss may be made keener if the enjoyment he might 
have had is pointed out to him. W^ienever he is 
sufficiently desirous, let him have another trial. 

When success, no matter how small, has been 
achieved and an ambition to do greater things has been 
aroused, let the next effort be on a somewhat larger 
scale. There is no need to arouse cupidity in a child's 
mind by giving him money for fruit or vegetables of his 
producing. In fact it is wrong to do so. Let them be 
put upon the table so that he may share the triumphs 
of his skill with the other members of the family. This, 
however, applies only to very young children. When 
they are older they may with safety be allowed to sell 
their products for books and clothes. 

The above outline probably suggests enough to un- 
dertake with children up to five or six years of age. 
From that time on their further instruction will be 
considered in Part Second of this book. 



CHAPTER IV 
PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 

If the outline so far given should be filled in with 
necessary details, adjusted to suit the needs of particu- 
lar cases, and applied faithfully and conscientiously 
there would not seem to be any need for rules of govern- 
ment. The problem of government is very nearly the 
problem of keeping a child busy in pleasant and useful 
occupations. But as the best machinery that has yet 
been invented will not work without friction and break- 
age, so the best laid plans for the instruction of a child 
will not go forward without trouble, vexation, and oc- 
casional strife. 

There is a certain perversity in human nature that 
was put there for good and is a factor in the world's 
progress, but it is frequently getting us into trouble 
and will continue to do so all our lives unless we suc- 
ceed in taming it and getting it under control. 

This perversity appears early in life and needs the 
wisest care lest it outgrow the judgment, become too 
strong for the will, and cripple the usefulness of the in- 
dividual for life. There are a multitude of parents who 
are at a loss to know how to govern their children, 
who would give all they possess if they could be sure 

69 



70 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

of a right wa}^ and could bring themselves to the point 
of carrying it out. There are multitudes of children 
of good parents who will never realize the full develop- 
ment of their powers, who will fight a losing battle 
in their efforts to overcome their deficiencies of char- 
acter, who will fall far short of the end for which they 
were created and perhaps go entirely to destruction, 
all because of lack of parental control and parental 
wisdom in their early training. 

The first essential of good government, then, is a 
good governor. There can be no expert workmanship 
without an expert workman. Government whether of 
a child or of a nation is an art and must be acquired 
the same way as any other art. It can come only by 
example, observation, study, and experience. To master 
the subject requires a trained mind, maturity of judg- 
ment and much time. 

How many young people plunge into matrimony 
with little thought and less preparation for parental 
duties! How much attention after marriage do they 
give to the subject of child training previous to the 
arrival of their first-born? Young parents are happy 
and proud in their offspring but what is the outlook 
for its bringing up? The matter is too important to 
be entrusted to novices or bunglers. The children of 
kings are carefully trained and educated to the limit 
of their abilities. Those who are expected to rule are 
tutored by the most skillful experts the kingdom affords. 
Now every child is a probable future candidate for 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 7 1 

parenthood, the highest privilege of citizenship, and 
should be trained accordingly. 

The family is the best type of kingdom in the world. 
The father and mother are king and queen and reign 
with undisputed authority, each having his or her 
separate and distinct rights and duties. They love 
their subjects and enjoy, or may enjoy, their absolute 
confidence and esteem. All disputes, troubles, trials, 
grievances come, usually before the queen first and if 
not settled there, go to the king, from whose decision 
there is no appeal. 

Why then should there be trouble in the government 
of such a kingdom? Is it not because the rulers do not 
realize the importance of their positions, have not been 
trained for it, have not made it the study of their lives, 
do not appreciate the enormous responsibility that will 
rest upon them if they fail, nor the honor that will be 
theirs if they succeed? 

The evidence seems to point to the conclusion that 
parents as a rule do not attach to themselves the blame 
that is due them when their children make wrecks of 
their lives. People who have made failures, or who have 
attained nothing, are very unlikely to cast the blame 
upon their parents, while it is common for those who 
have achieved the very pinnacle of success to ascribe it 
all to the love and wisdoni and sacrifice of those who 
bore them. The responsibility of the parents, however, 
is no greater in the one case than in the other. 

The Principles of Government. — When thought out 



72 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

and set in order the underlying principles of government 
are few and easily understood. It is the details, the 
adjustments, the diagnosis of individual cases of in- 
fractions that are difficult. When Jehovah gave to 
Moses the laws for the government of a great nation 
they were written on two tablets of stone, the Ten Com- 
mandments, so briefly stated that they could easily 
be committed to memory, and so plain that any rational 
minded man could understand them. The Saviour 
condensed the ten into two, expressed them in one 
sentence, and declared them to comprise the whole duty 
of man. 

The first principle is that there shall be authority, 
capable, recognized, having mutual interests with those 
governed and ha\'ing power to comm.and and to exe- 
cute. 

The second one is, there shall be laws or rules of 
conduct, righteous, merciful, and just, stated plainly 
and published sufficiently that all may know them. 

Third, there must be allegiance and obedience, and 
these are fundamental. To withhold allegiance is dis- 
loyalty, to refuse obedience is rebellion, to break a law 
is a misdemeanor or a crime. 

Since an intelligent understanding of these princi- 
ples is necessary before any kind of government can 
be instituted we will proceed to discuss them in 
order. 

Of all forms of government that of the family is un- 
doubtedly the oldest in existence. It obtains with a 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 73 

good deal of unanimity showing that it is nature's 
method. In some countries it extends farther than in 
others giving the parents the power of Hfe and death 
over their children. Among some races of men, and 
among certain species of animals, the tribal form practi- 
cally does away with family life. This has been tried 
in a limited way by civilized nations but does not obtain 
in any to-day. 

The kind and amount of authority a man may exer- 
cise over his children depends upon the customs of 
society and the laws that govern the country. The 
power of the group is great. An individual's actions 
are not likely to be very different from those of the class 
to which he belongs, that is he may not differ in ways 
that would bring disapproval. Every community 
has certain standards of family government, and any 
one may go to the limit of these standards, even though 
others do not, without incurring displeasure. But if he 
should go contrary to the customs of his neighbors 
their disapproval would act as a check. No man wants 
the sentiments of his own class against him. 

Also, there are laws in every countr}^ respecting the 
rights and duties of parents and these laws must be 
observed. But the laws and customs of every civilized 
country concede to parents the right to exact obedience 
of their children, to train them for usefulness, and to 
give them as much education as they think best. Like- 
wise they may have the products of the children's 
labor up to a certain age. But the laws forbid the in- 



74 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

fliction of bodily injuries or the practice of cruelty in 
any form. 

In addition to the above, most if not all of the states 
of the Union make it obligatory upon parents to edu- 
cate their children, or at least to send them to school 
a certain portion of the time, and they limit the par- 
ents' authority by enacting laws upon the subject of 
child labor. The tendency of the times is toward 
greater stringency in legislation and a stricter enforce- 
ment of the laws respecting both education and labor. 
The argument for this is that the child will become a 
citizen of the republic, that he will be a much better 
citizen if properly trained and educated, that as the 
population increases competition grows fiercer, and that 
every one needs to be in possession of all his powers 
with those powers properly developed if he is to succeed 
in the struggle. The state is not interested from a com- 
mercial standpoint alone. It believes every one should 
have an opportunity to make the most of himself for 
his own good. It wishes him to be prepared for all 
the duties of life, both civic and domestic, and there- 
fore it lays down its requirements. 

Parental authority differs from civil authority in that 
the latter is delegated while the former is not. Civil 
authority is from the "consent of the governed." It 
is the people making their own rules and regulations, 
agreeing to them as contributing to the common wel- 
fare, and living by them or sufTering the penalties which 
they themselves prescribe. 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 75 

But the right of parents to govern their children does 
not come from the state. It is an inherent right. The 
state has no authority except that which is given to it 
by the people, while parents have all authority except 
that which they in common with their neighbors sur- 
render to the state. Neither do parents derive their 
authority from the consent of the governed. From the 
very nature of the case this could not be. Children 
have no authority to delegate to their parents and no 
wisdom to make rules for their own bringing up. Con- 
sequently, as we said in the outset, the family is the best 
type of kingdom in the world. 

In laying down our first principle of government it is 
stated that those in authority must have mutual in- 
terest with the governed. In the case of the republic 
the interests of the government and of the people 
governed as a whole, are identical, but it is not entirely 
so in the case of the family. The children look at 
parental government from their own standpoint; if it* 
is to their liking it is good, if not it is wrong. In early 
life at least they consider only their own immediate 
wants and desires. It is not in the nature of things 
that they should look to their future welfare. Parents 
live chiefly for their children, but they do not and should 
not leave themselves out of the account. Their joy 
or sorrow through life depends upon the rearing of these 
little ones intrusted to their care. This is secondary, 
however, their chief desire being that their children 
shall live happy and useful lives, be an ornament to 



76 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

society and a blessing to the world. Their interest 
in the children's welfare is equally as great as that of 
the children themselves. 

Laws, Rules, and Regulations. — Having now an idea 
of authority, its sources, its rights, duties, and limita- 
tions, we may consider the second principle of govern- 
ment. 

It would be impossible for people to live in commun- 
ities without regulations. There would be a constant 
clashing of interests that would lead to disputes, fights, 
brawls, and the sacrifice of life. There could be no 
peace, no social or trade regulations, without an under- 
standing of the rights, privileges, and duties of all con- 
cerned. Law is necessary to life. 

When a number of people band themselves together 
to found a state, as the colonists did in the early history 
of our country, a multitude of problems arise that con- 
cern all alike or nearly so. They all want protection, 
'shelter, and food. Land must be cultivated and owner- 
ship recognized. How shall it be apportioned and what 
shall o\\Tiership consist in? Two may want the same 
tract; how shall it be decided between them? Labor 
will have to be exchanged for shelter or food ; what shall 
be the medium of exchange, the unit of measurement? 
Barter and sale will be necessary; upon what terms shall 
they be effected? The strong will want to take ad- 
vantage over the weak; how shall they be prevented? 
All people have some form of worship but there are a 
thousand different forms; who shall decide? Marriage 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 77 

will be desired; how shall it be consummated? These 
and a multitude of other, questions must be solved and 
enacted into laws and made known to the people, so 
that each one may know his duties and his limitations 
and be secure in his rights and privileges. 

Laws may be miade by all the people in assembly 
at som.e appointed time and place, as was done by the 
early settlers in Kentucky; they may be made by dele- 
gates chosen for the purpose by the people, as in a 
republic; or they may be made by the mother country 
and a governor appointed to carry them out, as was the 
case with the English colonists, or in still other ways. 
But the most satisfactory laws are those for which the 
people are directly responsible. When people make 
their own laws, untrammeled and unhindered, there 
can be no oppression, no trampling of rights, no dis- 
loyalty. 

There are no original forms of government in these 
days and no need for any. Neither is the process for 
law-making a new one. The subject has been studied 
for thousands of years, but the methods of procedure 
are still costly and cumbersome and no scheme has been 
devised that has proved itself an unqualified success. 

The principles upon which laws should be based are 
those stated in our second principle of government 
and are well understood by legislators everywhere. 
When a matter is proposed to be enacted into law the 
first question to be asked is, is it right? If it is wrong 
in itself, or would effect wrong in its working, that is 



78 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

sufficient to condemn it. The greatest difficulty in the 
way of righteous laws does not He in the securing of 
legislators who know right from wrong, but in securing 
men who cannot be bribed, influenced, or corrupted 
in any form to swerve from that which they know to be 
right. 

So long as humanity is weak and inclined to error 
the laws that govern it should be inclined towards 
mercy. The weak need more protection than the strong 
and are more likely to be oppressed, and the strong arm 
of the law is their main dependence. Many favor very 
rigid laws, thinking in that way to make control easier, 
but history proves the contrary. A few centuries ago 
England and other European countries had a great 
many laws on their statute books that bore the death 
penalty but crime was not lessened thereby. Also 
it is more difficult to secure a conviction under a harsh 
law than under a mild one. If in the opinion of a jury 
a penalty is out of proportion to the offense, they are 
slow to bring in a verdict of guilty. 

That laws should be just is self-evident. Justice is 
the bulwark of society. It means fair dealing and equal 
opportunity to all. The love of justice is deeply im- 
planted in the heart of humanity. Probably all persons 
desire to be just, certainly everyone wants to be con- 
sidered just; but the passion for money, for power, for 
self-gratification is strong in many and blinds them as to 
what justice is, or to their duty to be guided by its 
principles. The term a "square deal for all" made a 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 79 

strong impression upon the countr}' because it is a plea 
for justice to all classes whether rich or poor. 

All this is pertinent to the subject of family govern- 
ment because all who bear rule should know the princi- 
ples upon which human government of all kinds is 
based. The family, as has been said, is a little kingdom 
in itself, and to rule it rightly requires all the essential 
principles that are used in governing nations. 

Laws Should be Plainly Stated and Published. — There 
is a well known maxim that ignorance of the law ex- 
cuses no one, and this is as it should be; but it should 
be equally emphasized that if there is ignorance of the 
law some one is to blame. All rules of conduct should 
be well known to those who are to live by them. They 
should be stated clearly in simple language that the 
ordinary mind can readily comprehend. Formerly 
it was customary to couch the laws in terms so intri- 
cate that it required the most expert legal minds to 
interpret them, and even then there was room for end- 
less discussion as to their exact meaning. This gave the 
lawyers plenty to do but made the course of justice a 
slow and doubtful process. Now the laws for the most 
part are expressed in simple terms, and the simplest 
and plainest interpretation has the preference. 

It is equally important that they should be made 
known to the people. It was customary in the old days 
of the Jewish nation to assemble the people together 
from time to time and read and explain the laws to 
them. This not only made them familiar with the re- 



8o THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

quirements they were to observe, but it was done in such 
a manner as to cause the people to reverence the laws; 
and when this state of mind prevails enforcement is a 
comparatively easy matter. Our countr)^ is at fault 
in this particular. Our laws are so voluminous that 
there is little effort made to put them before the people 
as a whole. If one wants to know the law on any sub- 
ject he must secure a copy of the statutes and look it 
up, often a difficult matter in itself, or consult a 
lawyer. 

In family government there should be definite rules 
of conduct and the children should be well informed 
as to their part in keeping them. It is not necessary 
that they should all be written, but they should be 
thoroughly understood. The lack of definite plans and 
understanding of what is required is one of the chief 
weaknesses of family government. Rules should be 
few and simple but they should be made plain and 
lived from day to day so that they shall be learned by 
experience rather than by rote. There is a prejudice 
against formal rules in these days that is carried to an 
extreme, caused no doubt by the custom of former 
times of making a long list of minute and exacting rules 
the keeping of which grew to be an unnecessary burden. 
The revulsion of feeling brought about by such a method 
led to the other extreme and in some cases all rules 
were abandoned. 

When the Ten Commandments were given to the 
children of Israel the instruction to parents to teach 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 8 1 

them to their children was made exceedingly emphatic. 
"Thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, 
and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, 
and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest 
down, and when thou risest up. And thou shalt bind 
them for a sign upon thy hand, and they shall be as 
frontlets between thy eyes. And thou shalt write 
them upon the posts of thy house, and on thy gates." 
(Deut. VI : 7-9). This was undoubtedly the essence of 
wisdom and if the Jews had lived strictly according to 
its teaching they would not have perished as a nation. 

Lastly, rules should not descend to petty details but 
should be upon rather broad lines that will leave some 
room for the exercise of judgment. No one likes to 
have ever>' little matter laid down with a " thou shalt " 
or a " thou shalt not " as though he had no power of 
thought in himself. A general law is a measure for 
particular cases. Let the person concerned apply the 
particular case to the general rule, and if he misses the 
mark it will only be an error in judgment, and when 
the mistake is apparent he will be enlightened. If he 
feels the need of instruction he will ask for it. He should 
be held accountable for his judgment as well as for his 
actions. 

The Third Principle. — Allegiance is the obligation of a 
subject to the power over him. Loyalty is the sentiment 
of the mind acknowledging that allegiance, and obe- 
dience is the outward manifestation of loyalty. We 
owe allegiance to the government that gives us citizen- 
6 



82 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ship and protection, we are loyal when we acknowledge 
this allegiance by word and deed. 

The matter of allegiance to rightful authority ought 
to be emphasized more than it is. There is no humili- 
ation in being subject to goverrmient. It is an honor 
to be a citizen of any civilized country, to be a member 
of a church, a soldier in the army, a student in a school, 
a member of a family. Whether we are in an organ- 
ization by force of circumstances over which we have 
no control, as by being born into a family and into 
citizenship in a nation, or whether we put ourselves 
in voluntarily, as in a church or school, makes no 
difference in owing allegiance. If we are a part of an 
organization which contributes to our well-being we 
owe it allegiance corresponding to the benefits we re- 
ceive. 

It is in the former way that children owe allegiance 
to the family government. They are subject to it, not 
by request or consent, but because their entire well- 
being depends upon it. They should be taught to 
look upon it as the greatest blessing in life, to reverence 
it and to render a cheerful and willing obedience to it. 
To a certain extent, all this comes naturally but it needs 
emphasis now and again. Children wonder why they 
should do this or that contrary to their inclinations, or 
why they should not do a thing they wish to do. When 
it is within their understanding they should be told 
just why they should or should not, and they should 
also learn to obey unquestioningly, whether they can 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 83 

understand the whys and wherefores or not. The 
first great lesson to learn in life is obedience to au- 
thority. 

The Nature of Offenses. — The writer remembers a 
most excellent man stating many years ago that one 
sin was as offensive in the sight of God as another. 
He at the time accepted it as truth. Reason teaches us, 
however, that such cannot be the case. There are slight 
offenses and great offenses with all gradations between. 
When an offense has been committed the first thing 
in order is to examine into the nature of it. There 
are disciplinarians who have but little judgment when 
considering the seriousness of offenses. It seems to 
give them pleasure to magnify an incident that is 
slight into one that is grievous. They look upon any 
little offense as an affront to themselves. Their dig- 
nity is attacked, their vanity is injured, their con- 
trol is slipping away from them. Something severe 
must be done or the whole system will fall to pieces. 
They lose sight of the real quality of the offense in 
nursing their own imaginary grievance. 

One should always look at an offense from the stand- 
point of the one who committed it. Probably no affront 
was intended, no dignity attacked, and if vanity was 
wounded it needed to be. "Put yourself in his place" 
is a great maxim in government. But many say, "I 
never did such awful things when I was a child; I always 
acted thus and so." Such an argument only shows that 
one has forgotten his childhood or is self-deceived in 



84 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the way he looked at things when a child. If one did not 
do that particular thing he did other things fully as 
bad, or if he did not it was because of different circum- 
stances. Perhaps he had better training than he is 
giving his own child. 

Another will argue that even a slight offense is dis- 
obedience, and that disobedience is a capital offense 
meriting severe punishment. Disobedience is truly a 
capital offenss but even so there is as much difference 
in acts of disobedience as in any other class of offenses. 
We must have an eye for the main point, and the main 
point is, the offense itself, is it a grievous one? Does 
it or will it result in serious evil? Will it lead to greater 
offenses? Will it have a deleterious effect upon the 
character of the offender? These are the points by 
which it should be judged. 

After passing judgment upon the offense itself the 
next step is to discover the motive that prompted it. 
This is quite as important as the deed itself and the 
penalty that should be inflicted depends almost en- 
tirely upon it. An act cannot be judged by its conse- 
quences but only by the way it happened. The same 
act may deserve at one time censure, at another pity, 
and still at another praise. 

Cases in Point. — Suppose that a little girl is appointed 
the task of handling certain dishes and is instructed 
to handle them carefully. If in a fit of anger or through 
carelessness the dishes are broken she is deserving of 
censure. But suppose she is doing her best when a 



PARENTAL GOVERNMICNT .85 

noise occurs in the yard, the dog rushes by, knocks 
her over and crash go the dishes, she now deserves pity. 
Again suppose she is absorbed in her work, something 
attracts her attention, she sees the baby about to tumble 
into an open cistern, she drops the dishes and they are 
broken into fragments but the child is rescued. The 
broken dishes are just as great a loss as in the first in- 
stance, but now every one will say she deserves praise. 

A man kills his neighbor. It may be a horrible 
crime, it may be justifiable homicide, it may be a praise- 
worthy deed, all depending upon how it happened. If 
it was done for a selfish purpose and with premeditation 
it is a crime; if in self-protection, it is justifiable; if it 
was necessary to the defense of family or of innocent 
people it is praiseworthy. 

Direct disobedience may be deserving of the highest 
praise. A boy may be told that he is not to go into a 
certain pond under any circumstances without express 
permission. If he should see a comrade drowning and 
should with great danger to himself plunge in and bring 
him safely to shore, he would have acted right, would 
be a hero and deserve a Carnegie medal. 

But motives are not always so easily discoverable 
as in the cases above given. Very often they require 
a deal of penetration and investigation, but however 
hidden it may be, there is always a motive and we can- 
not determine what judgment to render until we have 
located it. If it will not come to the surface we must 
postpone judgment, for we can in no case deal intelli- 



86 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

gently with an act without knowing why it was com- 
mitted. If an offense is serious in itself and the motive 
obscure, it will pay to devote time and attention to its 
investigation rather than to make a mistake in judg- 
ment or to let it go unnoticed. 

Personal Offenses. — If an act of wrong is plainly due 
to personal motives, spite, malice, dislike or contempt 
of authority, it is a strong indication of something at 
fault in the relationship between governor and governed. 
The case needs searching introspection on the part of 
the one whose commands have been set at naught. 
In very many cases the fault will be discovered in the 
manner in which the authority was exercised. It may 
have been selfish, arrogant, untimely, or harsh. Un- 
warranted or unwise punishment may fiave been in- 
flicted and the feelings outraged. How natural it is 
for children and adults too to seek relief by wreaking 
vengeance or setting at naught the author of their woes. 

There are so many ways of going wrong in adminis- 
tering authority that parents need to keep a sharp 
lookout and not punish the little ones when the blame 
for their misconduct lies almost wholly with themselves. 
If the machiner}^ is found to be out of order let the first 
care be to set it right, then attend to the damage. If 
the parent has been at fault and acknowledges it, that 
acknowledgment will make a deep impression upon 
the child's mind and the efTect will be far better than 
if the fault is ignored and the child punished. 

Children cannot analyze their own feelings, frequently 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 87 

cannot trace their own motives, but the motives are 
there and parents should do the analyzing. It may come 
as a shock to the young to learn that parents are not 
infallible, even when they have rebelled at their author- 
ity, and it may produce great surprise to find them 
acknowledging their mistakes, but the lesson they will 
learn from the latter will more than offset any harm 
that wdll come to them from the former. 

While a great majority of these cases of personal 
offense are due to the fault or weakness of the persons 
in authority thej^ are occasionally due to other causes. 
They may have arisen from the influence of an outside 
party who has counseled it or set the example. If this 
should be true a serious talk with the offender will 
probably set matters right. But the fault may lie in 
the perversity of the offender. When this is so the 
case v/ould seem to merit severe treatment, but here 
again we must take heed to the source from which the 
motive sprung. The child has only yielded to an in- 
herited weakness, a weakness for which he is not 
responsible and for the possession of which he is not to 
blame. His only blame lies in yielding to the weakness. 

Now this perversity, as was said before, is implanted 
in us and has its uses. It cannot be wholly eradicated 
and should not be if it could; but it can and should be 
checked and put under control, and the child who has 
yielded to it needs not punishment so much as help. 
He should be told that this inclination to do personal 
injury may lead to great wrong both to himself and to 



88 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

others and must be overcome. He must show his 
strength by not yielding when the incHnation comes. 
If he is given to see his wrong act in the Hght of weak- 
ness on his part, and his resistance to it in the Hght of 
strength, he will set about his own reform which is the 
point to be desired. The use of this method is largely 
the secret of successful character training. 

Propensity to Investigate. — Childhood seeking ac- 
quaintance with its environment must needs investi- 
gate everything that comes to hand. It was this desire 
to obtain information at first hand that led our first 
parents, in the childhood of the race, to eat the for- 
bidden fruit; and childhood has been getting itself 
into trouble ever since in much the same way. Every- 
thing must be examined, inspected, experimented 
with. "Want shee wheels go wound" has been the 
cry of an infinite number of "Toddies." Neither can 
these youthful discoverers wait to be shown things. 
They are continually on the search for things to in- 
vestigate. "The mountain would not come to Mahomet 
so Mahomet goes to the mountain." This illustrates 
the spirit of childhood. 

How many scrapes are the result of this inquiring 
disposition! Their name is legion. Give a child a 
hammer and he will pound everything from his own 
toes to a plate glass mirror, just to see what will hap- 
pen. His mishaps are about equally divided between 
those that fall on his own luckless head and those that 
result in the destruction of property, and run all the 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 89 

way from grabbing a candle flame to smashing his 
grandmother's spectacles. 

Every experienced child trainer knows that the only 
proper way to deal with this spirit is to be ever on the 
alert to avoid calamity. It would not do to crush out 
such a propensity if it were possible to do so. That 
would be the greatest calamity that could happen. 
Its exercise gives him supreme delight and is the high 
road to usefulness, to the development of his faculties, 
to the acquisition of knowledge. 

It is well worth while to study a child in this investi- 
gating period. Some things he casts aside with very 
little examination. Their qualities do not appeal to 
him. Other things will absorb his attention. It is 
through these that his mind can be reached and in- 
struction given. Often the best instruction is that which 
is not given directly, which however well planned will 
appear entirely unconventional to him. Many little 
things designed for his investigation need not be given 
him but may be placed where he will happen upon them 
in his journeyings about the room. 

When he fmds an object thus provided he may be 
left to examine it in his own way. If he thinks he has 
discovered something important and brings it up with a 
"Look what I found," it should be appreciated but no 
enlightenment given unless he asks for it or unless some 
hint is needed to aid his ingenuity in discovering its 
properties. By allowing him this freedom to act for 
himself one may sooner discover what things appeal 



90 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

to him and what do not. If he is going wrong, that is 
if he is inclined to things that are harmful, some other 
avenue must be sought, other interests aroused. But 
so long as his interests are harmless his instruction will 
proceed best by following his lead. 

In this way a child practically outlines his own. sys- 
tem of instruction, and the truth of the saying that one 
cannot outline a course of instruction for a child with- 
out knowing the child is proved. Besides, the things 
that attract one day may be discarded the next. A 
child's interests change rapidly and we cannot prescribe 
for any length of time ahead. Our knowledge must be 
of the progressive sort to keep pace with his rapid de- 
velopment and the consequent changes in requirements. 

Progress is often, indeed most generally, retarded 
from lack of material for the growing mind to work 
upon. It will tax the ingenuity and wisdom of the 
brightest intellect to provide the material that an in- 
vestigating child can use to advantage. It should be 
kept in mind that to make the most of one's powers 
they must be put to use and kept in use while they are 
developing. So many child minds are starved in bar- 
ren surroundings all through the years when growth 
should be the most rapid, that it is no wonder in later 
years they fail to respond when an opportunity for 
education offers. No wonder their powers are hard to 
awaken, and still harder to bring into service, if they 
have lain dormant through the very period when they 
should have been most active. 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 9I 

There is danger too of checking this spirit of investi- 
gation by continually snatching things away from the 
child with a "baby must not have that, and baby must 
not touch this," and nothing provided that he may touch 
and handle to his heart's content. If he persists he is 
punished, if he gives up it is to whine and cry and fret 
until he is worn out and goes to sleep. If the investi- 
gating spirit is not killed by- this method of procedure 
it will take the only way possible under the circum- 
stances, investigate on the sly and run the risk of pun- 
ishment if discovered. 

Here is an instance. The baby has been unusually 
troublesome, getting into everything and being chidden 
for each and every offense until the nurse is distracted. 
She finally gets him into a state of semi-quiet, makes 
everything "safe" and runs out for a little chat with a 
neighbor, just to relieve the tension. She is no sooner 
gone than baby begins to look around. Everything is 
out of reach; but by pushing a chair up to the table 
he can climb first upon the chair and then upon the 
table and there is the ink bottle. What a find! It 
takes some time to extract the cork but it yields at 
last and with it comes the ink. What a beautiful color! 
Hands, face, clothes, table are smeared. It is the finest 
thing he has found since he can remember. About this 
time the nurse comes to the end of a most interesting 
tale and listens for some sound in the nursery. Hear- 
ing nothing she remarks to her neighbor, "That baby 
must be in some mischief or he wouldn't be still so 



92 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 



long." Sighing over the weight of her responsibilities 
she returns to her charge. Imagine the scene when she 
opens the door. Exclamations, reproaches, punish- 
ment, howls! The beautiful time is over and the con- 
sequences have been suffered, but, after all, was it not 
v/orth it? 

This constant interference leads to endless skirm- 
ishes and trials of wit in which the child is not always 
defeated. Some lessons are learned with such instruction 
that will not soon be forgotten. How to escape con- 
trol, how to do the things one wants to do and avoid 
detection, how to battle for one's rights, how to prevari- 
cate when punishment threatens, these are brought to 
perfection by practice — and who is to blame? Surely 
not the child, for was he not driven to it by the in- 
stinct of self-protection, the hrst law of nature? The 
only alternative was mental starvation, atrophy and 
death with no hope of resurrection, a condition much 
more pitiable. 

If a child could whisper instruction to that fictitious 
bird with the long legs and the strong bill that carries 
the tiny ones from heaven to their destination on earth, 
what a dearth of child life there would be in those 
homes that are barren of toys and pictures and books 
and all the delights of child life. But said bird is a 
stupid creature and makes a muckle o' mistakes which 
lead to the everlasting degradation and final destruction 
of myriads of helpless souls. 

Untruthfulness. — One of the wavs children learn to 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 93 

tell lies has been indicated above, but there are a thou- 
sand ways of learning an evil. As is well known all 
evils start with small beginnings and the best time to 
cure them is in the early stages before the practice be- 
comes habitual. There is no doubt but the most in- 
veterate liars could have been cured if they had been 
taken in time and the proper treatment administered. 
Just what the proper treatment is for certain cases most 
people are at a loss to know. 

Prevention, however, is better than cure and conse- 
quently parents should observe the greatest care to 
keep temptation out of the way. There should be as 
little occasion as possible for children to deceive or 
prevaricate. Lying is always done for a reason and 
with the idea of gain, usually to avoid detection, to 
escape punishment, or to obtain possession of some 
coveted article. 

Lying is often induced by asking children if they did 
this or that naughty act. What is more natural than 
that a child should deny doing a thing if by such denial 
he may avoid punishment? And if he finds it will work 
on one occasion, will he not surely adopt it as a regular 
method of procedure? It is unwise to ask questions 
to elicit information when there is a possibility of get- 
ting an untruth for answer. If investigation is necessary- 
let it be through other channels than by questioning 
the supposed perpetrator. Almost any offense w^ould 
better go unchallenged than to make opportunity for a 
child to lie out of it. 



94 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

Again, children are made to promise that they will 
not repeat an offense for which they are being punished, 
more punishment awaiting if they do not promise. A 
child quickly learns that the way to stop the punish- 
ment is to make the promise. Soon a temptation will 
come, the act will be repeated and now he must be 
punished more severely because he has added lying 
to his original offense. The punishment with the 
promise, along with an extra promise that this one will 
be kept, goes on and the child is on the highway to 
become an expert liar. A child may need punishing, 
but the punisliment is to keep him from repeating the 
offense and no promise is needed and none should ever 
be required. 

Truthfulness can be taught in a variety of ways but 
it is extremely doubtful if any bad case of lying can be 
cured by corporal punishment. A child should be 
taught, first of all, that truth is in itself better than ly- 
ing and that it pays better; that it is a splendid thing 
to be trustworthy, to have one's own w^ord depended 
upon. Second, lying should be made to appear, as it is, 
abominable. The child should be led to see that the im- 
mediate advantage which an undetected lie may bring 
is more than offset by the evil consequences that are cer- 
tain to follow; that lying is sure to be detected sooner or 
later with loss of reputation; that every one despises 
falsehood, even those who indulge in it. Third, along 
with precept should go example. Parents and teachers 
should show a reverence for veracity and be exceedingly 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 95 

careful in all their speech that no semblance of false- 
hood may appear even in jest. 

Imitation. — The reason correct example is so all im- 
portant is because children are such perfect imitators. 
We all learn more by watching others and following 
their example than we are aware of. This propensity 
appears more pronounced to us when we find ourselves 
in strange company where the customs are not familiar 
to us and we are afraid of going wrong. In such a 
position we keep a sharp eye on what others are doing 
and imitate them as skillfully as we may. 

Now children are in a strange world and are always 
running against ways that are unfamiliar to them, and 
as their reasoning powers are not strong their main 
chance for adapting themselves to their surroundings 
is by imitating their elders. Being particularly anx- 
ious to act like and be like those whom they love, 
they admire and copy their ways assiduously. Words, 
phrases, exclamations, movements and even the slight- 
est mannerisms will be studied and practiced until 
they are mastered. Anything that especially strikes 
their fancy as when some small accident provokes an 
involuntary by-word they will catch in a twinkling. 
A little girl was watching her father mending a small 
frame. At one of his hammer strokes a stick flew up 
and struck his nose. " Confound that stick," exclaimed 
the father. The suddenness of the accident and the 
unexpected and previously unheard remark at first 
alarmed the child, but when she saw there was no seri- 



96 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ous harm done the humorous side of it struck her and 
she laughed in the greatest glee. Presently she ran 
to her mother and rehearsed the incident for her bene- 
fit. She would strike a blow with her little fist, an 
imaginary stick would fly up, she would grasp her nose 
and cry out, "Tonfound dat 'tick!" The adoption of 
the by-word followed as a matter of course. 

This tendency to imitate is a stronghold in character 
forming. It lays the necessity of putting a guard upon 
every word and action lest undesirable traits appear 
that will not be easily eradicated. It is hard to for- 
bid children doing what they have learned from parents, 
pastor or other highly esteemed grown-ups. It may 
seem irksome to be ever on one's guard but it is one of 
the responsibilities of parenthood and the good results 
are well worth all the effort required. 

It is incumbent upon parents to be in character what 
they desire their offspring to be. They may have habits 
which they deplore but have not the power of will to 
overcome. They desire their children to escape these 
habits, but how shall they prevent them from following 
the example they themselves set? It is inconsistent 
to i)unish another for what one allows in himself. 
Children may and often do escape the bad habits of 
their parents, but when they do, it is usually through 
the influence and better example of others. This is 
infinitely better than the forming of evil habits, but the 
knowledge that their children's good traits are due to 
others cannot be entirely comforting. 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 97 

Imitation from Outside Influences. — A large part of 
one's character comes from contact with others of about 
one's own age and class. If a child's playmates are a 
little older and better versed in the ways of the world 
their influence is particularly strong. A child cannot 
l)lay for a single hour with other children without show- 
ing their influence upon him. He will consciously or 
unconsciously adopt their words and their ways. He 
learns quickly their advanced knowledge, and will never 
again be quite the same person he was before. No child 
should be kept away from all other children for fear 
of contaminating influences, but there are very many 
whose intimacy should be avoided. 

Children that are brought up in towns or villages 
and allowed the freedom of the streets acquire bad 
language and evil thoughts with great readiness. Evils 
attach themselves to the mind like burrs to woolen 
cloth and are more difficult of removal. It takes all the 
power of parents, Sunday school teachers and day school 
teachers to offset the evil influences of the street; and 
even with the united efforts of all these the street fre- 
quently comes off victorious. What then is to be done? 
Manifestly there is only one course to pursue and that 
is, keep the children off the street. Any parent who 
imagines his power over his child to be greater than 
that of the street, is likely to come to grief. 

How many parents allow their children to wander 
at will, all the day through, without the faintest idea 
of who their associates are or of what they are doing. 

7 



98 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

To be at home for meals and at bedtime is all that is 
required. If they escape some of the ills that childish 
folly is heir to, it will not be due to the parents' care. 
It is morally certain that they will not escape them all. 

Little children should never be allowed outside of 
their own domain except when under the care of some 
responsible and capable person. 

It is impossible to successfully combat the influence 
of evil associations and still allow the evil associations 
to go on. Children may repeat in the home vulgarisms 
they hear on the street and be told they miust not use 
such language and they may be punished for it but it 
will not cure them. They will simply have a care to 
avoid punishment and go on using them when out of 
hearing. 

It is an evil day when a child learns that it is wise 
not to confide in father and mother, that a large part 
of the knowledge he acquires from his companions must 
be kept from them. Parents having once shut them- 
selves out from the confidence of their child will never 
be able to enter that sacred citadel of the heart again : 
try they ever so hard. They may plead, scold, pumsh, 
weep, but it is shut against all their efforts. Yet they 
cannot permit disgusting remarks to go unchallenged. 
What is to be done? The answer again is, there is only 
one safe way and that is to keep the child from contami- 
nating influences. 

The home should be made attractive. There should 
be plenty of out-door space for play. Children of the 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 99 

right sort may come and play with them and they may 
return their visits under proper restrictions. A child's 
surroundings must be sufficiently attractive to satisfy 
his desires or else he will break away or be restive under 
restraint. Parents who keep their children in, but fail 
to provide them with suitable activities, are about as 
much at fault as those who permit them to run at large. 

The Power of the Group. — The influence of associ- 
ation is strongly seen in what has come to be known as 
The Power of the Group. We can tell from what 
section of the country a man comes by hearing him 
speak. He uses the same dialect or peculiarity of pro- 
nunciation as the people of his section and we recognize 
it at once. We say he is a down-east Yankee, or he is 
from the middle West, or he is a Southerner. Whichever 
it may be, we assume that he has the qualities common 
to the people of his class. We assume this because we 
know a person is not likely to be very different from the 
people with whom he associates. 

Society forms itself into classes according to similar- 
ity of ideas and tastes, of religious belief, of educational 
advantages, of social standing. When one joins a 
group he is expected to act in concert with the group. 
If he will not conform, the group will bring pressure 
to bear upon him ; and if he is intractable, he will lose 
standing and perhaps be expelled, persecuted, or ig- 
nored. Any group has a vast power over its members. 

This power is manifest in children at an early age. 
You may see an illustration of it almost any time if 



lOO THE TRAINING OV CHILDREN 

you will watch a group of children at play. One is in- 
jured, roughly treated, or bullied, and not being able 
to retaliate, he starts off in high dudgeon, defying the 
whole group and declaring "I will tell my mother." 
Now the group sees possible disaster ahead but it is 
not without resources. "Telltale, mamma's boy, cry- 
baby" are some of the taunts hurled after him. He 
stops to answer but the gibes and mocking laughter 
continue. His fierce determination relaxes, his swift 
gait begins to lag. Presently he stops, turns to one 
side, and pouts. The gibes cease, they have done their 
work, all danger is over. By and by the injured one 
returns shamefacedly, is received with good nature, 
and harmony is restored. 

Recognizing this power, as every one must, those 
that have the training of the young must not fail to 
reckon with it. It matters not so much in what city 
or in what section of the country one lives, there are 
good and bad in all, but the difference comes in choos- 
ing the class with which one is to associate. This is 
more difficult in the country or in small villages than 
in the city where there are enough of all classes to suit 
every one's taste. In selecting a group, the important 
thing to consider is that the standards of the individual 
are not likely to be much above or much different from 
the standards of the group with which he associates. 
Therefore parents need to exercise the greatest care in 
choosing associates for their children. 

In this connection it may be well to say that the 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT lOI 

children of the poor are as Hkely to be free from vices 
as the children of the rich. There is a tendency on the 
part of certain parents to toady to those who are better 
off in this world's goods than themselves and to consider 
it an honor if their children are allowed to associate 
with those of the more favored neighbor. There is 
danger too that the children will catch this spirit of 
toadyism and be content to play second fiddle when 
their powers of intellect entitle them to an equal foot- 
ing with others. The rich man's son, accustomed to 
seeing his father lord it over those around him, naturally 
assumes the same right over his playfellows and they 
are too prone to accept this rule as coming by divine 
right. Far better let them associate with those of their 
own station, at least until they have acquired some 
independence of character and are able to assert and 
maintain their own rights. Poverty will not rub off, 
and while bad grammar may be contagious it is not 
contaminating. It is readily curable and leaves no 
stains or scars. 

The Rights of Property. — The little words mine and 
tliine are much alike and closely related and one would 
seem to be as easily understood as the other, but it is 
not so. Many children grasp the idea of the former 
and hold on to it with great tenacity, but that the latter 
has any rights they are bound to respect they are slow 
to perceive. This is natural enough in view of the 
circumstances that frequently surround a child. He 
is supplied with toys and hears them referred to as 



I02 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

"baby's rattle, baby's doll, baby's wagon," and what 
not, until he looks upon all such things as belonging 
to him. When he comes into contact with some other 
child who has toys, and one of them strikes his fancy, he 
appropriates it and then trouble ensues. The owner 
wants it and grabs for it, the appropriator will not give 
it up, and all the symptoms of a first class row are in 
e\idence. 

Just here his education on the rights of property 
should begin. He must be made to understand that 
the object in dispute belongs to Willie and these other 
things belong to him. He may have his own playthings 
but must not take Willie's. On the other hand, while 
not interfering with discipline in this particular in- 
stance, Willie must be taught to be generous with his 
playthings and let the baby use them. It is a nice 
distinction, this being generous in the use of objects and 
still retaining a property right in them, but with pa- 
tience it can be taught. 

It is to be feared children often get the idea of ap- 
propriating things from members of the household. 
Articles are given them temporarily and when wanted 
for use are taken away by main force. The article 
was given without any explanation of its temporary sur- 
render and the child supposes he has the same right 
of possession that he enjoys with his other playthings 
and consequently fights for it. Many people think 
such little matters as these are of no consequence and 
disregard them; but little matters often lead to serious 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 103 

things, that require ten times the effort to overcome, 
if indeed they are overcome, than would have been 
necessary for a different course of action in the first 
place. 

It is evident then that a child's rights of possession 
should be treated with as much respect as the rights 
of grown people. What is his is his, and he has the first 
right to it. He should be taught to lend things and 
share their use as grown people do, but if an article 
is borrowed from him it should be returned promptly 
with a word of thanks thus recognizing his generosity. 
If things are wrenched from him it will but teach him 
to be violent in turn and bring trouble and punishment 
and other evil consequences upon his head. 

It is just as important that a child should be taught 
to respect the property rights of older members of the 
household. It too often occurs that a little one learns 
that he can master the whole household, that by fight- 
ing and screaming he can obtain possession of almost 
anything he may want, no matter to whom it may be- 
long. Some children learn this art of grabbing and fight- 
ing for things and practice it until they become a nui- 
sance. They will do it, wherever they happen to be, 
to the embarrassment of all concerned. 

Children should learn to respect the property rights 
of father and mother and all the other members of 
the family, and of outsiders still more particularly. If 
they want anything that belongs to another they must 
ask for it politely and return it with equal courtesy. 



I04 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

The easiest time in life to teacli these things is at the 
beginning. It is easier to form than to reform. Polite- 
ness and a proper respect is so becoming in children 
that it is worth while to train them to it for that reason 
alone, but its results are so far-reaching and weighty 
that they should not be neglected for any reason. 

The writer in a quarter century of teaching has been 
called upon to deal with a good many cases of child- 
stealing. Evils seldom travel singly, and stealing is 
certain to be accompanied with lying. It is of little 
use to attempt to force an admission of guilt by ques- 
tioning. Even if the victim is caught by the adroit- 
ness of the questioner it only teaches him the necessity 
of greater caution in the future. Neither will punish- 
ment be likely to effect a cure. The method that worked 
best in the writer's experience can perhaps best be 
explained by giving one or two instances that actually 
occurred when he was superintendent of public schools. 

Number One was a girl of about thirteen years of age 
in the seventh grade who was accused of taking part 
of a schoolm.ate's dinner from one of the baskets in the 
hall. Before interviewing the accused all the evidence 
obtainable was mastered and put in orderly sequence. 
Then the girl was summoned and the case stated in 
the most matter-of-fact terms. She made quite a 
show of surprise and indignation that any one should 
think of her being guilty of such an act, and asked if 
it was possible that I could suspect her. I replied that 
the evidence was so strong as to force me to the con- 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 10$ 

elusion that she was guilty. I then drew a picture of 
the way I thought it happened. I said in substance, 
"You were in the hall alone; one of the baskets was 
partly uncovered leaving something tempting exposed ; 
you were slightly hungry and without thinking much 
about it took the tempting morsel and ate it thinking 
no one would be the wiser. Was not that the way it 
happened? " At first she looked astonished as though 
she thought I must have witnessed the whole occur- 
rence. When I finished with the direct question she 
replied, "I am afraid that is just the way it happened," 
and gave way to sobs. I presently told her that her 
offense was due to moral weakness, that I was sure 
she had no intention of becoming a thief but that such 
would be the result if she did not exercise great care 
and exert her will to the utmost when necessary, and 
that I should not expect to hear of any such occurrence 
again. When I excused her she thanked me for my 
kindness and assured me the offense would never be 
repeated ; and I feel certain it never was. 

Number Two was a boy of about eight years from the 
fourth grade, charged with stealing some small article 
from the teacher's desk. In the course of the investiga- 
tion it developed that the boy was in the habit of taking 
things from his schoolmates and was a most consum- 
mate liar seeming rather to enjoy the situations he 
created. I studied the case carefully before calling the 
lad. He was a bright manly little fellow, the son of a 
minister, and easily put at his ease. I made no at- 



Io6 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

tempt to probe into his mind, asked no questions that 
would give a chance for denial, but discussed the offense 
in a way that made it clear I was convinced of his guilt. 
I spoke about the motives that probably prompted 
him to this kind of deeds, the satisfaction it gave him 
to see how skillfully he could perform them and how 
successfully he could avoid detection and punishment. 
I then held up to view the other side, the wrong com- 
mitted upon others, the danger of its leading to greater 
and greater offenses, and what was liable to be the final 
outcome. 

The boy listened most respectfully, without inter- 
ruption, until I paused and gave him an opportunity 
to speak. He made no attempt at denial but said I 
had described his case correctly, that he had gone into 
it for fun, that his parents had tried hard to break him 
of stealing and lying. He had no intention of being 
either a thief or a liar, and now seeing the danger, he 
would try to quit. I told him I would not punish 
him but would keep an eye on him and help him all I 
could. I further said, " You will be tempted again and 
may yield, but if you do I make the request that you 
come to me and tell me about it, so that I may render 
further aid." And I promised that if he would do this 
I would be a friend to him and would not betray the 
trust he imposed in me. He agreed to the proposition 
and went his way. I kept my eye upon him for many 
months. He always greeted me with the greatest re- 
spect and friendliness. Not another complaint ever 



PARENTAL GOVERNMENT 107 

came from either teacher or pupils regarding his honesty 
or truthfulness, and I am satisfied the boy wrought out 
his own reform. 

Many other cases might be given differing in details 
from the above but these will be sufficient to show 
that there are other and more effective ways of dealing 
with offenses than by corporal punishment or any other 
violent means. The offender is usually a victim of cir- 
cumstances rather than a sinner by intention, and needs 
help rather than punishment. If he is treated as a 
hardened sinner he may become one. If his offense 
is treated as a lapse from otherwise creditable conduct, 
and if sympathy is extended, he may be encouraged 
to put forth an effort to reform which is the great 
desideratum; for without his effort nothing can be ac- 
complished. 



CHAPTER V 
PUNISHMENT 

The Object of Punishment. — The chief aim of punish- 
ment is to reform the offender of whatever wrongdoing 
he may be guilty. It is to impress the culprit with a 
sense of his folly. It is to make him stop and think 
about his conduct and realize its offensiveness to those 
who have his well-being at heart. It is to prevent a 
recurrence of this or any similar act. If it brings these 
about it is effective, otherwise it is a failure. This should 
always be kept in mind as of chief importance. 

Second, it disapproves the offense, puts it in the cate- 
gory of things that are forbidden. The degree of sever- 
ity of the punishment should be an indication of the 
seriousness of the offense, slight offenses meriting lighter 
punishment than grievous ones. Disapproval is in 
itself a punishment; if forcibly expressed it may be 
sufficient penalty for minor matters, and if given in 
time it may act as a deterrent from more serious ones. 
Children as well as grown people like to have the ap- 
proval of their superiors and will go to great lengths 
to hold it or to regain it if lost. If more parents real- 
ized the power of disapproval and understood better 

1 08 



PUNISHMENT 109 

how to use it, much of the home government would be 
easier than it now is. 

A third aim that is sometimes in evidence is to make 
of the offender an example to others. It serves them 
with a warning to pay heed to their conduct lest a like 
penalty fall upon them. This of course can only obtain 
where there are a number of children subject to the 
same rule. There is some doubt about the justice of it 
as it makes one suffer for the sake of the others. It 
should certainly be used with moderation if at all. 

A fourth aim with some persons is to show the children 
who is in authority and inspire them with a fear of that 
authority. A wholesome fear of those who bear rule 
is often desirable but when it comes with an "I'll show 
you who's boss," it may inspire awe but will hardly 
command respect. It smacks too much of brute force 
and of a fierce delight in exercising superior strength. 

A fifth object, (which it is to be hoped will not meet 
with indorsement) is to relieve aggrieved feelings. It 
is not uncommon for parents to endure the pranks and 
bickerings of children for a long while until patience 
is exhausted, then fall upon the offenders and punish 
them until their own wounded feelings are relieved. 
This kind of punishment bears all the marks of having 
relief to one's feelings the main object and is therefore 
wholly unjustifiable. 

Punishments That Should Never be Resorted to. — First, 
all sorts of punishments that are in themselves 'cruel 
must be avoided. Anything that would maim or injure 



no THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the body is not to be thought of. A child should never 
be struck on the head with the hand or any other in- 
strument. Such an act is beneath the dignity of any 
cultured person. The bones of a child are soft and a 
box on the head with the knuckles may result in in- 
jury. A slap with the open palm may burst the delicate 
ear drum. At best it is a harsh application of author- 
ity, puts an indignity upon the child, outrages his feel- 
ings and causes enmity where love should abide. 

Only a trifle less dangerous are those punishments 
that tax the endurance of muscles or nerves, such as 
standing for some length of time in a corner, or conform- 
ing to any uncomfortable position. Such punishments 
are liable to interfere with a child's welfare in health 
and growth and thus result in lasting injur}^ A child 
in his waking hours is a creature of almost continuous 
activity and remaining in any uncomfortable position 
not only inflicts pain but hinders growth. Any punish- 
ment inflicted upon the body should be of short dura- 
tion and leave no injurious efTect. 

Terrorizing little ones is perhaps the most abominable 
of all practices that have their excuse in punishment. 
One would suppose that the practice of shutting a 
child in a dark closet had passed away with other bar- 
barous customs but it appears still to be in use among 
certain people who consider themselves quite civilized. 
Fear is so unlike everything else that it can only 
be described by its own name in excessive form, terror. 
To say that a thing is terrible or terrifying is to exhaust 



PUNISHMENT III 

the language of mental suffering in that particular state. 
Remorse may be almost as painful as fear, though 
that is doubtful ; but remorse often results in the great- 
est good, while abject fear is almost certain to result 
in direful consequences to the character. It is likely 
to produce cowardice which is always despicable. 

To make the matter worse, children are sometimes 
made afraid of the dark by being told that something 
will catch them. This terrifies them because they have 
no means of knowing whether it is true or not and they 
do not dare to put the matter to the test. Later they 
will learn that they were deceived and lied to by those 
whom they should have been able to trust; but the im- 
pressions of childhood are hard to eradicate and often 
that foolish fear of the dark remains through life. 

As said in a previous chapter, children should be 
taught to fear nothing except things that are really 
dangerous and then only such as are reasonably avoid- 
able. It is useless, for example, to teach little ones 
to be afraid of lightning, except to have them shun the 
shelter of trees in a thunder storm. Yet children and 
grown people, too, cower in terror when they are as well 
protected as human means can provide. Death from 
lightning is comparatively rare yet parents will, in the 
presence of the children, relate all the instances they ever 
knew or heard of until the children are convinced they 
are in the most imminent danger every time a storm 
occurs. A mother will jump and perhaps shriek at a 
sudden crash of thunder and excuse herself by saying she 



112 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

is SO afraid of lightning. Every one of stronger nerves 
pities the mother; but the children think it the proper 
thing or mother wouldn't do it. 

If children are inclined to be afraid of thunder and 
lightning it is much better to quiet their fears by telling 
them they are comparatively safe, that very few people 
are ever hurt by lightning, and that God can take care 
of us as well in storm or in darkness as in the sunshine. 
This will save them from a large amount of useless 
suffering. If grown people are afraid they should not 
impart their fears to others, but should cultivate quiet- 
ness and the fear will diminish. 

Again it is customary in certain families to discuss 
the dangers of ocean travel, and to tell of disasters at 
sea until the children imagine the sea to be little more 
than a yawning chasm waiting to swallow them up if 
they should ever venture upon its surface. Now children 
must be properly warned against needless venturing 
in the water, but to have their minds prejudiced against 
ocean travel by over emphasis of its dangers can serve 
no good purpose and may cause much unnecessary 
discomfort. 

Avoid Jerkiness. — If an engineer should run his train 
by guess, if he had no definite idea of his destination 
or the time for arrival at and departure from stations, 
his train would be of little use to passengers. If he ran 
his train some days when he felt like it and left off 
others because he didn't feel like it ; or if some days when 
he was in a good humor he ran his train steadily, ar- 



PUNISHMENT II3 

rived and departed on time, was affable and accom- 
modating, and the next being in a fierce temper he 
ran Hke Jehu, arrived and departed several hours ahead 
of time, was snappy and cross to everybody, how long 
would his business be a success? 

Yet such a picture illustrates family and school 
government in far too many instances. Children have 
as little idea of what to expect a day ahead as the pas- 
sengers would under the above conditions. Some days 
the teacher is all smiles and sunshine, the children are 
happy and everything is as placid as an Indian summer 
day. On other days the teacher's countenance is like 
a dark cloud, he is sullen and cross and liable to break 
into violence over some trifling incident that on other 
days would pass entirely unnoticed. The children feel 
the chill in the atmosphere, dread the foreboding storm, 
are crossgrained and unhappy, and the day is a failure. 

The same thing prevails in certain families. If 
father is in one of his happy moods he will grant any 
request the children may ask. If mother thinks other- 
wise, father says, "Oh, let the children have a good 
time." But wait till father's mood changes, then let 
the children look out. IMother will have to come to 
their rescue or father's harshness will be next to un- 
bearable. Sometimes the mother's temper is changeable 
and her rule uncertain. In either case the government 
is criss-cross and jerky. 

There can be no success in such an administration 
of government. Evenness of disposition is one of the 



114 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

essentials of any ruling power. Under a jerky rule 
injustice is certain to be meted out. Some luckless 
wight will be sure to be deceived by the remarkable 
serenity, venture too far, and being absorbed in his 
own devices never notice the approaching storm until 
it falls full blast upon his head. 

The weakness of character of a disciplinarian who 
is as changeable as April weather is too obvious, even 
to children, to command their respect. They will take 
every advantage when conditions are favorable and 
learn to keep a sharp lookout for squalls. When they 
see trouble ahead they subside until it passes, then they 
can have some fun again. Can any one expect to pro- 
duce strong and capable character with such an ex- 
ample? 

Whatever kind of government one believes in, 
whether mild or severe, there should be a definite plan, 
one that can be followed consistently in all weather 
and under all ordinary conditions. Definiteness, regu- 
larity, and certainty are the strong points of govern- 
ment. If children know what is wanted and what is 
expected of them, they are almost certain to make an 
honest effort to meet those wants and expectations. 
If they are left to guess their way, very little can be 
expected of them. 

Corporal Punishment. — All punishment is or should 
be to produce an effect upon the mind. Whatever 
offense a child may have committed it is the mind and 
not the body that is guilty. There is danger of losing 



PUNISHMENT' I15 

sight of this truth. A parent or teacher will discover 
a child in some misdemeanor, jerk him up, give him what 
they call a ''good whipping," leave him overwhelmed 
with pain and think they have made a good job of it. 
A sound thrashing with abundant evidence of suffering 
is what they are after and when it is assured they are 
satisfied. As to whether any mental change has taken 
place in respect to the offense it does not concern them. 
They have done their duty, their authority has been 
vindicated, what more can be asked? 

A careful and intelligent parent never finds it neces- 
sary to strike a child a blow, either with hand or rod. 
"Spare the rod and spoil the child" is a figure of speech 
and only means spare correction and spoil the child. 
All of us who have attained to any age have seen many 
children who were not spoiled although never whipped, 
while on the other hand we have seen plenty who were 
spoiled although accustomed to being beaten. Spoiling 
is not a question of "rod" or "no rod," but of the neg- 
lect or unwise application of the principles of govern- 
ment. 

*lThe steps in discipline should be about as follows: 
First, a clear understanding of what is required; 
second, warning against infractions or disobedience; 
third, counsel; fourth, rebuke or reprimand, the dis- 
tinction being the degree of severity necessary; fifth, 
more punishment if these do not suffice. 

The more severe punishment should vary according 
to the nature of the offense. A large percentage of 



Il6 THE TR:\INIX(] of CHILDREN 

wrongdoing may be classed under the head of Abuse 
of Privilege. When this covers the case the natural 
penalty is the withdrawal of the privilege. It is a 
child's privilege to sit with the family at table but if 
he does not behave he should be removed. If he is 
given a book and abuses it, it should be taken from 
him. If he is allowed to visit a neighbor and his con- 
duct is unbecoming he should be taken home and his 
request to repeat the visit denied. This withdrawal 
of privilege should be temporary to be sure but it 
should be of sufficient duration to effect a change of 
mind. 

If a child is sent on an errand and overstays his time 
he has caused inconvenience and must in turn suffer 
a similar loss. The next time he should not be allowed 
to go because he cannot be trusted. If he deceives, 
falsifies or is dishonest he loses his reputation, his 
standing and his business suffer. This is what happens 
to grown people and it is what should happen tem- 
porarily with children. We cannot do business with 
those who deceive us, falsify to us, and cheat us. We 
cut them out of our transactions if we can, disapprove 
of their actions, and prefer to dispense with their so- 
ciety. 

This course does not always cure old offenders but 
it acts as a tremendous restraint upon many people, 
and if properly carried out with children who are just 
becoming acquainted with the ^^'a}'s of life should 
be quite sufficient. They will in this manner learn 



PUNISHMENT I17 

by their own experience that forbidden things are not 
for their good, that although they may yield pleasure 
at the time, they do not pay in the long run, that the 
confidence and trust of their parents are worth more 
than anything they can gain by disobedience. This is 
what they must come to, ultimately, if they are to be 
good moral citizens and the sooner it is taught them 
the better. 

The Kindergarten. — People who live in cities and towns 
where kindergartens are maintained have the oppor- 
tunity to receive from them much help in the training 
of their children. At about the age of four years 
children are placed in the care of experienced kinder- 
gartners who teach them many things that are to their 
advantage in play, in singing, in manners, and in work 
that is suited to their age and advancement. They are 
taught to act in concert with other children and gauge 
their conduct according to the standards required. 

But parents who dwell in the country seldom have 
an opportunity to profit by the kindergarten or by 
kindergarten methods. Yet there are compensations. 
They are surrounded by field and wood and the children 
can learn many things directly from nature that are 
not permitted to city children. But it takes a person 
of some intelligence to direct children in their study 
of the life around them. The lack of knowledge of the 
names and uses of plant and animal life aside from the 
commonest kinds, on the part of country people, is 
amazing. A child's questions about plants, insects and 



Ii8 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

birds go unanswered because no one possesses the 
knowledge to enlighten him. If he had some one to 
give him the information and lead him on to investi- 
gate intelligently his mind would be more active and 
alert than it usually is when he enters school. 

He would see, too, the need of learning to help him 
in his studies of nature. A large percentage of children 
are started to school without the least idea of what 
it is for and with very little if any desire to learn. Na- 
ture study affords the finest field in the world to arouse 
an interest in learning. If a child has been started 
properly he will know that books contain much in- 
formation that he needs and he will consequently 
want to learn to read in order that he may obtain this 
information. 

This is the main reason some children take to learn- 
ing so readily and progress so much more rapidly 
than others. The training previous to school life makes 
a vast difference, much more than most people suppose. 
Where a child is incapable of planning, his parents 
must plan for him. A certain college professor of note 
explains with pardonable pride how he came to be a 
graduate from a certain college. He says his father 
would tell him from time to time that he was destined 
from his cradle to be graduated from this college, 
related his own experience when he was himself a stu- 
dent there, and gave the son many bright anticipations 
of what was in store for him. The son looked forward 
eagerly to the time when he should be ready for en- 



PUNISHMENT I19 

trance, thoroughly enjoyed his college life as his father 
before him had done, and took his degree as a matter of 
course. 

Now most parents have not attended college but 
nearly all have had years of experience in elementary 
schools and no matter how much or how little they 
learned, whatever they did acquire is precious to them. 
They would not sell their learning for money nor ex- 
change it for anything earth has to give. If they cannot 
relate college experiences they can tell their children 
how much pleasure and profit they derived from their 
attendance at the public school. They can have them 
looking forward with eagerness to the time when they 
shall be in school and be learning the mysteries of read- 
ing, writing and arithmetic and the other branches 
that are taught. 

Helps. — Every family where there are children should 
have a supply of children's literature. There are so 
many excellent books for children and they cost so 
little compared to the benefits derived that no one can 

afford to be without them. No matter if the children 

♦ 

cannot read, their parents can do the reading for them. 
They will find that books nowadays that are prepared 
for children have a vast amount of enlightenment 
for most grown people, and this enlightenment will be 
interesting and helpful. There are books in abundance 
on the common things around us, written by those who 
have careful and accurate knowledge and made plain 
for beginners be they young or old. There are books 



I20 THE TRAIXIXG OF CHILDREN 

on plants, how they grow, their cultivation, their ene- 
mies and how to combat them. There are books on in- 
sects, birds, fishes, and animals, with information simple 
enough for a child's understanding 3Tt new to many 
adults. There are books of travel with pictures and de- 
scriptions of life in many lands that are intensely inter- 
esting to young and old. If anyone objects to fairy 
stories he need not deprive his children of material for 
the imagination on that account. Stories of real child 
life in Mexico and the South American countries, in Eu- 
rope, Asia, and Africa, are abundant and cheap and to- 
gether with the pictures that accompany them m^ake the 
most excellent material for children. The knowledge 
they obtain will remain with them and be valuable in 
after life. It will entertain them, give them food for 
thought and make them eager for further knowledge. 

Children who have had such a preparation as this 
are not likely to find school irksome. They will go to 
their tasks with an eagerness that will make advance- 
ment easy and rapid. If they have a good fund of 
knowledge with which to begin their book learning 
they will understand the lessons at school much better. 
It adds keenly to the interest of a lesson when a child 
can say, "I know something about that"; and proceeds 
to tell what has been learned in the home. 

Parents who take pains to see that their children 
are prepared for school will find their efforts repaid a 
thousand fold. They will be in close touch with the 
little ones and will be interested in what they are gain- 



PUNISHMENT 121 

ing from day to day in school. The children will put 
forth greater efforts and consequently make more rapid 
progress than if parents show no interest and make no 
inquiries as to their studies or their life at school. 

If the education of the parents has been limited it will 
not matter so much, provided they will put forth an 
effort to keep in touch with what the children are get- 
ting. They will pick up many a bit of knowledge 
which their broader views of life will enable them to 
interpret better than the children possibly can, and in 
this way they may win and hold their respect. 

The teacher too will be benefited and encouraged 
by this cooperation on the parents' part, A consulta- 
tion now and then as to what the children have been 
taught at home, what they are especially interested 
in will be of the greatest assistance to him. He will 
know better what lines to follow and what instruction 
will be the most helpful. It stands to reason that the 
greatest progress will be made when parents, teacher 
and children all work together. 



PART TWO 
SCHOOL LIFE 



CHAPTER VT 
WHEN A CHILD ENTERS SCHOOL 

•The Country Teacher. — In dealing with this part of 
our general subject of mind development we shall en- 
deavor to keep before us the conditions to be met by 
the country teacher. While having many things in com- 
mon the country teacher has numerous problems that 
never confront the city teacher and many disadvan- 
tages in working them out. He, or she, (we prefer to use 
the masculine pronoun), has no principal or superin- 
tendent with whom to counsel when vexations occur 
or doubts arise ; no weekly teachers' meetings where the 
best wisdom of the corps is available; no fellow teacher 
across the hall with whom to consult in petty emergen- 
cies; no outlines of lessons with careful instructions 
as to details for daily guidance; and usually far less 
preparation and training than the city teacher has en- 
joyed. In most cases the country teacher could not, 
if he would,* obtain a position in city schools. His 
qualifications are not up to the mark required by city 
superintendents. 

On the other hand the country teacher has advantages 
that his city cousin might well en\y. He is independent 
of principals who lay down the law saying how this 

125 



126 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

shall be done and how that shall not be done. He has 
no superintendent to countermand his most cherished 
plans. (A county superintendent has so little op- 
portunity for personal supervision that his interference 
is here considered a negligible quantity.) There is no 
teacher of long standing and superior wisdom in the 
next room above to criticise the product of his work 
when it comes on up to her. He is not confined to one 
grade of work with practically the same materials and 
the same methods from year to year. 

In fact his position is in many ways enviable. He is 
the chief authority in his district. He can lay plans 
and carry them out without hindrance. His work is so 
varied that it cannot become monotonous. He may 
exhaust all the skill he is capable of with the little ones 
and daily test his ability to give more advanced in- 
struction with the larger ones. If he is successful he 
may stay year after year instructing the same pupils 
from promotion to promotion, and watching their de- 
velopment under his care. He has a chance to advise 
the older ones and inspire them with the most sublime 
ideals. He may keep in touch with them in after years 
and retain their friendship and love as long as he lives. 
Yes, the life of the country teacher is fraught with op- 
portunities and possibihties that no other may enjoy. 

The First Day of School. — When the country teacher 
assumes sway he finds himself confronted with a con- 
glomerate mass of raw material, consisting of twenty, 
forty, or perhaps sixty, boys and girls, ranging in age 



WHEN A CHILD ENTERS SCHOOL • 127 

from five or six to eighteen or twenty, and of various 
degrees of advancement, cultivation, ability, and en- 
lightenment. His task is to take this unhomogeneous 
mass, study it individual by individual, place each one 
where he or she belongs and bring everything into 
working order. Not only must the mass be organized 
into one harmonious whole known as the school, but 
it must be arranged in classes to facilitate the progress 
of instruction, and each individual unit must have just 
the care and the kind and amount of instruction that 
his or her particular case requires. This is no small 
undertaking. 

Let us first consider The Beginners. Many people 
including a goodly percentage of teachers think it a very 
simple matter to start beginners on their way to learn- 
ing. All that is necessary, in their minds, is to learn 
the children's names, find out by a brief test whether 
they have any knowledge of reading, and if not put 
them in the chart class. These beginners are called up 
three or four times a day, given a lesson from the chart 
if there happens to be one, and sent back to their seats. 
In all they receive each day from twenty to forty min- 
utes of the teacher's time. If they are bright they will, 
in the course of a term or two, learn to read a little, 
perhaps be well along in the first reader. 

In the inter\^als between lessons they are allowed to 
get along as best they can, the teacher being chiefly 
concerned in keeping them reasonably quiet. If they 
are so fortunate as to have writing materials they may 



128 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

amuse themselves with these; if not, they may do 
about as they Hke, provided they do not disturb the 
older pupils. To them school is a tiresome and dreary 
place. The time drags wearily on with many a yawn 
and a constant longing for the session to be over so 
they may get out to play. 

This is indeed a simple regime but it is woefully 
lacking in some of the essentials of child training. 
The children are not advanced as they should be, 
their time is for the most part wasted, they fall into 
lazy habits and acquire a dislike for school. Any really 
competent teacher would prefer to start these children 
from the beginning, rather than undertake the task of 
starting them over again and undoing the evil that had 
been wrought after a year of such schooling. 

In the first place, entrance into school brings about a 
great change in a child's life. In the majority of cases 
it takes him from a life of freedom all day long and 
places him under restraint for many hours of each day. 
Hitherto his tasks have been of his own choosing; he 
has made his own problems and sought their solution 
in his own way. Now he must work in harness as it 
were. His tasks and the method of performing them are 
prescribed by another, usually a stranger. All the ways 
of the place are new to him and he must adapt him- 
self to them as best he may. If he starts to run about, 
he is put back in his seat and told to sit just there. If 
he attempts to talk, he is suppressed at once, it is 
strictly forbidden. In short, he is virtually a prisoner 



WHEN A CHILD ENTERS SCHOOL 129 

condemned to labor without any choice of kind or 
method. 

In view of this great change it is exceedingly impor- 
tant that school be made a pleasant place and learning 
be put in its most attractive form. To do this requires 
a bright teacher, one with ready sympathy and a skilled 
understanding of children's likes. If the child has been 
prepared for school, something after the manner de- 
scribed in the closing paragraphs of Part One, and if he 
has the fortune to be placed under a real live teacher, 
there will be little trouble. He will have been informed 
as to what will be expected of him, that he is to remain 
in the seat where he is put, obey the teacher, and be- 
have like a little gentleman. If this has been done he will 
respond cheerfully and appreciatively to the teacher's 
efforts. 

In the second place, his work-a-day life has begun. 
He is a creature of responsibility. Tasks are prescribed 
for him and he is held accountable for the way in which 
they are performed. Instead of roaming about accord- 
ing to his own sweet will, he must submit to the will 
of another. He has passed under the yoke and must 
henceforth bear the burdens thereby entailed. 

Now the best and happiest workmen the world over 
are those who love their work. Hence it is important 
that the first lessons should be as delightful as they 
can be made; and that they can be made pleasant has 
been proved a thousand times. It is not necessary 
that a pupil shall learn so many new words or cover a 
9 



130 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

certain amount of space the first week or the first 
month, but it is essential that he shall be introduced to 
the mysteries of book knowledge, that its acquirement 
shall be a pleasure and its possession a present benefit 
to him in his everyday life. If his verdict at the end 
of a month is favorable, if he has found learning en- 
joyable and prefers the life at school to any other he 
has yet tried, a crucial time in his career has been safely 
passed. His education may thenceforth proceed as 
rapidly as his budding powers will permit. 

The third great point to be kept in mind when a 
child enters school, is that he should acquire the habit 
of diligence. It is not only necessary that he should 
be kept busy but that he should learn to bring energy 
and devotion to his tasks. The acquirement of the 
habit of a listless and half-hearted effort has kept thou- 
sands of young people from ever coming into the full 
possession of their inherited powers. It is not needful 
that the effort be long sustained, it should not be, but 
it should tax the whole being while it lasts. A half hour 
of intense effort will accomplish more than an hour 
of desultory application, and in after years the dispro- 
portion will be far greater still. Besides, the pleasure 
derived from putting forth all one's powers is something 
that the half-hearted plodder knows nothing about. 

Fourth, a child's induction into the ways of school 
life should be a gradual process. Some of the best 
primary teachers have an astounding amount of skill 
in this particular. They seem to anticipate a child's 



WHEN A CHILD ENTERS SCHOOL 131 

every want. They know what is going to happen before 
it begins, and understand what to do to prevent un- 
pleasant occurrences. They know how to greet the 
children in the morning, how to keep them wide awake in 
their efforts to do their best through the day, and how to 
send them home happy with a "good-by, teacher," 
on their lips. They know as by intuition when the 
little ones are doing their best, when they are not try- 
ing, and when they are weary or only pretending to be 
weary. Such teachers are worth their weight in gold, 
but they are not so plentiful as we could wish. 

Usually children are not given the care and attention 
in their first days at school that a first-class trainer 
gives to colts when they are being broken to harness. 
A trainer is well aware that a colt will not do what is 
desired of it until it knows what that desire is. He 
advances by littles, is kind, persuasive, and patient. 
No harsh words are spoken, no blows are struck. If 
the colt is slow to learn, the trainer does not slacken 
his efforts on that account. He knows that patience 
and perseverance will win in the end. If one does not 
yield as readily as another he is not discouraged. He 
knows there is a vast difference in colts, and studies 
each one faithfully until he understands its disposition 
and can adapt his instruction to its particular needs. 

I have sometimes wished that certain teachers of my 
acquaintance could be for a few hours in the presence 
of a first-class horse trainer. If they could see his en- 
thusiasm, notice the deep interest he takes in his 



132 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

charges, hear him discourse on the pecuhar dispositions 
of certain ones and his methods of deahng with them, 
it would open their eyes. To be sure, the horse trainer's 
salary is likely to be ten or twenty times that of the 
teacher, but after all it is not the salary that makes 
him an expert. It is his being an expert that brings 
the salary. This fact is sometimes overlooked. 

To proceed with the application, a child's training 
when he first enters school should be much like that 
of the colt. lAke the latter the child will do what is 
desired of him if he knows what that desire is, and he 
will do it much more c]uickly through kind treatment 
than through blows or harsh words. 

A Child's Knowledge when he enters School. — After 
the first few weeks of infancy all new knowledge must 
be connected with and built upon that which has al- 
ready been acquired. When a child enters school it is 
taken for granted that he has a considerable store of 
knowledge. To ascertain the extent and nature of this 
knowledge is the teacher's first business. He may even 
have an acquaintance with books, magazines, and news- 
papers, and he may have learned from them much that 
is valuable although he is yet unable to read. If he 
comes from a reading family, one supplied with litera- 
ture, he is certain to have this knowledge whether he 
has been taught to read or not. WTien the teacher 
discovers this he has an eft"ecti\T leverage to work 
upon, and his task is very much lightened because 
the child knows pretty well what he is in school for 



WHEN A CHILD ENTERS SCHOOL 133 

and has a desire to acquire the art of seeking knowledge 
for himself. 

Moreover such a child will find a close connection be- 
tween what he learns from books and what is in his 
mind. He will listen eagerly to the teacher's explan- 
ations and comments, he will be constantly adding to 
his store of information, analyzing, classifying, and 
arranging his knowledge for present and future use. 
It puts a teacher on his mettle to meet the wants of one 
like this. If he fails to read him correctly he may win 
his contempt rather than his respect or admiration. 
It will not do to repeat a lot of childish lingo that this 
pupil has long passed. The teacher must be able to 
take the measure of each child's advancement and 
make the proper connection. 

Many children are very different from those just 
described. They come from homes that are destitute 
of reading matter. The world of literature is to them 
a strange world, perhaps an unheard-of one. They 
know nothing of its attractions or of its benefits for 
them. They scarcely have an idea of what learning is 
for, consequent^ they have little desire to acquire it. 

The contents of the minds of these children should 
be as an open book to the teacher. They need a course 
of instruction very different from that above men- 
tioned. They too have a store of knowledge, but it is 
not connected with books or with literature of any 
kind. It is of their homes, their acquaintances, and the 
things around them. They must be shown that what 



134 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

they know is a part of the world's stock of knowledge, 
and that the learning of the school will greatly add to 
their store and will consequently increase their happi- 
ness and usefulness. 

The essential thing is to create in their minds a 
desire for the learning that may be acquired at school. 
They must be made to understand that their mental 
powers grow as their bodies grow. As their bodies re- 
quire food and exercise, so their minds require mental 
food and mental exercise. 

Having ascertained the contents of the child's mind 
the next thing is to give a lesson about some familiar 
object, introducing something new, or at least present- 
ing it in a new light that will awaken interest, start new 
ideas, open up avenues of thought hitherto unknown. 

For country children the picture of a robin would do 
very well for the first lesson. Ask them if they recognize 
the bird, if they know its name, what they like about 
it, whether it is useful to the farm and garden, when it 
comes, where it builds its nest. Show them what the 
robin's name looks like in writing or put it in a sentence 
if that is preferable. Give them a verse or a little song 
about the robin, and promise to teach it to them a, 
little later. 

But before we go further into the details of the work 
of this period let us take a look at the whole field of 
school life, its divisions and the nature of each so that 
we may the better understand the relation of this pri- 
mary work to that which is to follow and to the whole. 



WHEN A CHILD ENTERS SCHOOL 135 

While many of the children may not go beyond the 
common-school studies, some may wish to go farther, 
and we shall need to know how to prepare them, to point 
the way and indeed to inspire them with a longing for 
the higher things that are theirs for the taking. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE DIVISIONS OF SCHOOL LIFE 

School life, as understood and practiced throughout 
the country, naturally includes five periods of nearly 
equal length as follows: 

First, The Period of Beginnings — Primary Depart- 
ment — time four years. 

Second, The Period of Elementary Training — Gram- 
mar School Department — time four years. 

Third, The Period of Secondary Training — High 
School and Academy — time four 3^ears. 

Fourth, The Period of College Life — General Scholar- 
ship and Culture — time four years. 

Fifth, The Period of Research and Special Train- 
ing — time two to four years. 

While these periods vary somewhat as to time they 
are reasonably accurate, are recognized everywhere, 
and each is worthy of separate consideration. 

I. The Period of Beginnings 

This period deserves special attention for several 
reasons. First, in point of membership it far out- 
numbers any of the others. It is safe to say that more 
children are included in this period than can be found 

136 



THE DIVISIONS OF SCHOOL LIFE 137 

in all the others put together; or, that the number 
in the first period is as great as in the third, fourth, 
and fifth combined. Or put it this way: Ninety per 
cent of all children who grow up get the beginnings — 
learn to read, write, spell, and compute numbers. 
Possibly fifty per cent take all or part of the second, 
or elementary period, that is, learn something of 
arithmetic, geography, grammar, history, physiology, 
and the like. Perhaps ten per cent, (rather less than 
more,) take all or part of the third period, the high 
school or academy. About three per cent go to college, 
and about one fifth of one per cent take post graduate 
work. 

The above shows that so far as the number attend- 
ing school is concerned, the first period is the most im- 
portant. This period is, as the name indicates, the 
time of beginnings. Here is to be laid the foundation 
of whatever learning the children may acquire in their 
school career. Much will depend upon their experiences 
here as to whether they will like or dislike school, 
whether they will desire a complete education or con- 
sider further schooling useless, the reward not worth the 
effort. So much depends upon the teacher that one may 
fairly tremble lest she fail in her high mission. Aside 
from making school pleasant and engendering a love of 
learning the little ones have many wants that demand 
attention. They must be taught the routine of school 
life, how to conduct themselves in class and during 
study hours, their relations to their schoolmates and 



138 THE TR.\INING OF CHILDREN 

how to act in concert with them. They look to the 
teacher for everything and to be successful she must 
have skill and patience and love for the work. The 
training of pupils in the early stages is all important. 

Third, the principal business of pupils in school is 
studying, and the principal business of the instructor 
is teaching them how to study. This is not learned to 
perfection in a few months or in a few years. As a 
matter of fact few people ever learn it. It has been said 
if students on completing their high-school course have 
learned how to study they have done exceedingly 
well, and will have no difficulty in mastering their 
college course. This is undoubtedly true. It has also 
been said with equal truth that to know how to study 
is in itself an education. 

All through life we are confronted with problems 
that must be studied out, or solved. Not to be able to 
master them spells failure and inferiority. The superior 
mind is not, as a rule, superior in quantity or quality 
of brain, but in the training and development of the 
mental powers. The trained mind knows how to look 
at a given subject from all sides; how to proceed from 
the known to the unknown; how to reason from cause 
to effect in logical sequence until the conclusion is 
reached. Often the most intricate problems that are 
absolutely dark and unsolvablc to untrained minds 
are perfectly simple when the steps of reasoning are 
explained. The ability to solve is simply a matter of 
training. (The term "problem" as used here does not 



THE DIVISIONS OF SCHOOL LIFE 139 

imply arithmetic or algebra but refers to the trouble- 
some questions that arise in life either in school or 
out.) 

College and high-school teachers appreciate the im- 
portance of knowing how to study much better than 
the teachers in the lower grades, and particularly than 
district-school teachers. This is because they have 
themselves been taught or have learned the great secret. 
And because of this training they are now occupying 
the better paid and so-called higher positions. All suc- 
cessful teachers in colleges and high schools lay great 
stress in their instructions upon how to study. But if it 
is so important in the advanced schools how vastly 
more important it is in the lower grades ! It is unfortu- 
nate if one must be almost through his school life before 
mastering this important art! When we consider, too, 
how few ever reach the higher schools we can see how 
essential it is that attention should early be given to 
the chief thing. 

What does studying mean? It does not mean con- 
ning over the thoughts of others or committing words 
to memory. A certain amount of this is necessary to 
be sure, but it is not the better meaning of the term. 
To study is to think, and children can think. When they 
compare a word with an object and grasp the idea that 
the word represents the name of the object, the}^ are 
thinking. They must learn definitions and rules and 
tables, but the thinking process should go along with 
the memorizing. They should compare each stated 



I40 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

fact with the idea which it represents until the mean- 
ing is clear, otherwise they are not studying. 

Children need constant and careful instruction in 
order to master the endless number of facts confront- 
ing them. They must ever be making comparisons 
between the symbols of things and the things them- 
selves. A child may easily learn to say, "Two pints 
make a quart," without the slightest idea of the mean- 
ing of either "pint" or "quart." Such learning has but 
little value. A clear understanding of the terms must 
go with the statement, and the teacher must see that the 
child gets this understanding. Much if not all of the 
"form" work that is given to children can be made 
"thought" work if the teacher has the enlightenment, 
the intelligence, and the skill to do her part. 

From the foregoing the great responsibility of teach- 
ing beginners is obvious. College teaching is child's 
play compared to it. The college student scarcely 
needs instruction, the child can hardly advance a step 
without it. But it is the teacher's duty to make her- 
self less necessary to her pupils as their education ad- 
vances. They m.ust gradually, very gradually to be 
sure, but no less certainly, become independent think- 
ers, discover the objects that correspond to their sym- 
bols, make the comparisons and arrive at definite 
conclusions. If the teacher understands the nature of 
the child mind and the methods of its development her 
pupils will know how to study as children should study 
long before they reach the high school. 



THE DIVISIONS OF SCHOOL LIFE 141 

In order to accomplish this it follows, fourthly, that the 
teacher should give more time to pupils who are in the 
"period of beginnings" than to those farther advanced. 
Older students should get as much out of the study hour 
as out of the recitation, the little ones do not. Their 
love for school and for learning, their mental and spirit- 
ual development, their usefulness, their happiness, and in 
many cases their destiny, all depend in large measure 
upon the kind of teaching they may have in the first 
years of school. 

2. The Period of Elementary Training 

This for reasons similar to the above is the next 
most important period of school life. The two include 
all the education given in all country schools, and in 
what is known as the grades in all town and city schools. 
Those who complete the elementary training given 
in this second division of school life are supposed to be 
equipped for ordinary occupations such as farming, 
carpentering and all mechanical operations. In ad- 
dition to reading, writing and spelling they have 
learned all the essential things, or at least all the com- 
mon things, in geography, grammar, U. S. history, 
physiolog}', and arithmetic and in some cases music 
and drawing. 

Very many enter the profession of teaching in the 
district schools, and a considerable number take the 
study of Medicine or Dentistry, and some the study 
of law with no further school preparation than that 



142 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

gained in these two periods. About nine-tenths of all 
the education given to all the people in the United 
States is in these same periods. Many states have as 
yet made little or no provision for the secondar\^ edu- 
cation of the young people outside of that provided in 
the cities and towns, but the question of county and 
township high schools is being agitated and some states 
have made commendable progress in this particular. 
Yet even where high schools and academies prevail 
the numbers attending them are small compared with 
those who do not attend. 

We may say that in this second period most people 
receive all the practical education they ever get in the 
schools. If the teachers are capable and the students 
are permitted to complete the work of the period they 
come out with a fair working knowledge of the common 
branches. It is meager enough at the best. They know 
but little of the world's literature without which no one 
can claim to be educated. Except for a mere smatter- 
ing of our own country they are ignorant of the world's 
history. They have learned a little of grammar but all 
tlie great languages, both ancient and modern, are 
"Greek" to them. They have enough arithmetic for 
practical use but have not even been introduced to the 
other branches of mathematics that are supposed to dis- 
cipline the mind. In short they have come to the parting 
of the ways where the great world of knowledge lies be- 
fore them. They are ready to enter and make its riches 
their own but comparatively few ever cross its threshold. 



THE DIVISIONS OF SCHOOL LIFE 143 

Since so large a part of the education of the country- 
is obtained in the district school or in the "grades" 
it is evident that the instruction ought to be of a char- 
acter to best suit the needs of those who take it yet 
every educator knows that such has not been the case 
in the past. xA-lmost all who do not enter high school 
take up some of the ordinary occupations of life and 
the schools should fit them, at least in a general way 
for it, but they do not. They are as far removed from 
the industries as it is possible to be. In their zeal for 
learning the schools have held the mistaken idea that 
knowledge and culture and mental development were 
to be gained from books and have overlooked the fact 
that the field, the garden and the shop are equally 
productive of the attributes to character. It is now 
coming to be understood that the two should go hand 
in hand. 

3. The Period of Secondary Training 

This includes the high school, academy, or normal 
course and usually requires four years for its com- 
pletion. 

The people of the cities and towns long ago saw that 
the common-school course could not furnish sufficient 
education for their children. It did not prepare them 
either for college or for life. Children who enter school 
at five or six years of age and attend nine months each 
year complete the common-school course at thirteen or 
fourteen. They are too young to take up a life work. 



144 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

They must go on with their education at home. Acad- 
emies and high schools were founded to take up the 
work just where the common schools dropped it. The 
main and original purpose of the academies was to 
bridge the chasm between the grades and the college. 
The high schools were established later, not so much to 
prepare for college, as to give further education to a 
large number of children whose parents considered 
them too young to take up a life work. As tuition 
was provided at the public expense and the children 
could board at home, it was styled the "poor man's 
college" and was from the first, and still remains, more 
of a finishing than a preparing course. 

The high schools, supported at the expense of the 
towns and cities that established them have been very 
popular. They have placed four years of excellent 
training at the doors of thousands of boys and girls 
who otherwise would be depri\'ed of higher education. 
Most of the high schools of the larger towns are finely 
equipped with buildings, laboratories, libraries, g}^mna- 
siums, and works of art, and the salaries paid are suffi- 
cient to procure the services of trained teachers. 

The academies have had a harder struggle because 
they are usually "church" schools, that is they are 
established and controlled by some denomination, and 
are dependent partly upon tuition and partly upon 
contributions from the churches which they represent. 
They do not appeal so directly to all classes, and be- 
cause of the uncertainty of their support have not 



THE DIVISIONS OF SCHOOL LIFE 145 

been so uniformly successful as the high schools. But 
because of their high moral standard and wise admin- 
istration they have done, and are still doing, a world of 
good. 

The normal schools are of recent origin. They are 
designed to prepare young people both in scholarship 
and methods for teaching. Much attention is paid to 
methods of instruction. Originally, the normal schools 
were private enterprises, but of late years nearly all 
the states have provided one or more in which tuition is 
free. In this way a state provides itself with trained 
teachers, but the supply is as yet far from adequate. 

These secondary schools either prepare their students 
for a liberal education or equip them for life with a de- 
gree of learning and mental training far beyond that 
of the common schools. They include in their courses 
of study higher mathematics, ancient and modern 
languages, English and American literature, general 
history, and the sciences, such as chemistry, physics 
and botany. With the excellence of their facilities 
and with their well trained teachers they are doing 
a work for the country that could not be dispensed 
with. 

4. The Period of College Education 

This period stands for scholarship and culture and 
like its predecessors requires four years for its comple- 
tion. The college was first established for young men 
who wished to follow some one of the so-called learned 
10 



146 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

professions, theology, law, or medicine. But the love 
of learning grows by its o^^^l acquirement and the col- 
leges soon became popular. It is now beginning to be 
generally known that a liberal education is good for 
an individual, no matter what calling he may there- 
after pursue; that college life is fuller and freer and 
richer than any other, and in the formative years of 
youth well repays the efforts required to secure it; 
that the time thus spent yields a "more abundant 
life" in the years to come. Nor has it been long since 
the needs and rights of young women have been recog- 
nized, and in co-educational and female institutions 
they are now keeping pace with the young men. 

5. The Period or Research or Special Training 

The college puts the finishing touch upon the general 
education of the individual. At the end of it he may 
take up any special line he may choose. His mind is 
trained, disciplined, and stored with knowledge. He 
should be able to make rapid strides in whatever field 
he selects. He may enter the school of law and become 
a lawyer; of theology, -and become a doctor of divinity; 
or he may go on with certain studies under the direction 
of the university and become a doctor of philosophy. 
To prepare himself for any of these or for other pursuits 
will require from two to four years. He has spent from 
eighteen to twenty years in preparation in the schools 
which added to the five or six previous 3^ears puts him 
well along in the twenties, a good time to begin his life 



THE DIVISIONS OF SCHOOL LIFE 147 

work; or, if he has dropped out of school a few years 
at intervals to put into practice what he has been learn- 
ing and finishes his schooling at thirty, it will most 
likely increase his usefulness. 

This somewhat comprehensive outline is given that 
teachers may know what a complete education as 
offered in the schools, the world over, consists of. The 
phrase "as offered in the schools" is used advisedly, for 
an education is never completed so long as the human 
mind has power to learn. 

Every teacher should know at the outset what it 
means ''to go through school." He should understand 
the significance of each division, so that pupils may be 
kept looking ahead with eager anticipations to the 
periods in advance, to the end that the work of each 
period may be done at the proper time and in the 
proper place. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF MENTAL 
ACTIVITY 

All intelligence, all knowledge, all mental activity, 
have their sources, physiologically speaking, in the 
nervous system of which the brain is the central office 
or station. From the brain extend the nerves of the 
special sense organs of sight, hearing, smell and taste, 
and the spinal cord. Thirty-one pairs of nerves ex- 
tend from the spinal cord, which with their numerous 
branches ramify to all parts of the trunk and limbs. 
These nerves are of two kinds according to their uses 
and are called respectively afferent and efferent. It 
is the business of the former to carr\^ the operations 
of the special sense organs to the brain producing sen- 
sations. These are interpreted by the brain and an 
order is given for a certain kind of action. This order 
is carried to the muscles by the different nerves, and 
the action results. 

For illustration suppose we are searching in the dark 
for a door. Certain of the nerves of touch comiC into 
contact with an object, and the fact is flashed to a cer- 
tain group of brain cells whose business it is to respond 
to these nerves. The "touch" is familiar to the cells 

148 



THE BASIS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 149 

and is interpreted at once into "door knob," a message 
is sent through the efferent nerves to the muscles, the 
knob is turned and the door opens. The Vvhole opera- 
tion occupies but a very small fraction of a second, but 
when we analyze the act we can see that it happened 
as described above. We experienced the sensation 
of touch, we recognized it as the door knob, and we 
acted upon this knowledge. 

Suppose when we are not expecting it we touch 
something we do not recognize, the operation is this: 
the efferent nerves report the contact to the brain cells 
as before, but they being taken as it were unawares 
and being ever on the lookout for injury flash back 
through the efferent nerves the signal "danger" and the 
hand is jerked away. It may be a moment later we 
recognize the object touched as perfectly harmless and 
laugh at the "start" we made. The explanation is 
that when the sensation was reported to the brain cells, 
they were taken by surprise and did not dare to lose 
time by referring to memiory and judgment but took 
the safe course of getting out of the \yay and permitting 
investigation to go on afterward. 

Now the knowing part of all this belongs to the mind, 
but the mind cannot act except through the nerves, 
the brain and the muscles; and when we know the 
function of the different parts of the nervous system 
it is easy to trace the act from start to finish. 

Take another example. Light is reflected from an 
object to the eye, we perceive that the object is a book, 



ISO THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

we rise from our seat, go to the book and examine it, 
lay it down and return to our seat. This series of acts 
was started by the reflection of the book upon the 
retina of the eye. The image, or rather the fact of its 
existence, was carried by the optic nerves to a group 
of cells in the occipital lobe of the brain where lies the 
visual center. There the agitation or the activity of 
these cells is interpreted as "book," but there is as yet 
no definite knowledge as to the nature of it. The cells 
of curiosity are aroused into action, the proper muscles 
are notified and put to work, and we fmd ourselves at 
the table examining the book. Here again, the optic 
nerves report the title, name of the author, and table of 
contents; the mind interprets the meaning of all, and 
the will causes us to lay it aside. It is the nerves, 
the mind and the body all acting in conjunction; and 
in this way all the actions of our lives are made up. 

We have seen that the optic, the auditory, and the 
olfactory nerves have their sources in the brain and go 
directly to their respective organs, and also that they 
must be and are afferent, or sensory, in their functions. 
The nerves of taste (sensory and motor) located in the 
tongue, have their origin in the spinal cord in the medul- 
la oblongata. There are many other nerves, sensory 
and motor, that have their sources in the brain, the 
principal ones of which are those that protect the eyes, 
those that give expression to the face, and those that 
control the muscles that move the eyeballs. 

There is still another set of nerves that are called 



THE BASIS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 151 

reflexive whose actions do not depend upon the will 
but are involuntary or automatic. Such are the nerves 
that control the muscles of the digestive organs, the 
heart, and the lungs. The stimulus that sets these 
nerves into action is in the functioning of the organs 
which they control. Thus the heart, which is mainly 
composed of muscle, contracts when blood flows into 
it; food is the stimulus for the stomach, air for the 
lungs and so on. There is a vast number of these re- 
flexive nerves, with muscles or glands to correspond, 
whose duty it is to take care of the body, to separate 
waste matter and carry it off, and to repair the body 
with new materials supplied by food, air and water. 

Some of these reflexives can be temporarily con- 
trolled by the will as those of the lungs and of the eye- 
lids, but their regular functioning goes steadily on with- 
out our attention, which is a very wise provision as 
otherwise we might neglect to keep them in operation. 
Most of them we have no control over as to their 
functioning, but as to their good or ill we have much 
to do. 

In addition to the reflex actions just noted, we are so 
constituted that many acts that in the beginning re- 
quire the most careful attention are gradually reduced 
by repetition to reflex. Balancing the body on the 
feet and walking are two out of many hundreds that 
may be mentioned. It is the duty of everyone to bring 
as many right and necessary actions as possible into a 
reflex state. This is in order that we may do right and 



152 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

necessary things habitually and without stopping to 
think about them. Acquiring these reflex conditions 
should constitute a large part of the education of every 
individual. 

This tendency of oft-repeated voluntary actions to 
become involuntary is a wise and wonderful provision. 
It is like having a lawn-mower that would become so 
accustomed to performing its function that it would 
go out and mow the la\^'Tl whenever the grass required 
it ; or like having an alarm clock that, after having been 
set and wound to alarm at a certain hour for a great 
many times, would go on ringing its bell at that same 
hour whether it was wound or not. 

But valuable as the provision is it also has its dan- 
gers. After a certain set of nerves and muscles have 
acted automatically for a long time they may come to 
demand that action whether we desire it or not. Neither 
does it matter whether the action is good or bad, the 
tendency will be to go on and repeat itself again and 
again just the same. This shows how important is 
the cultivation of good habits. 

To protect the brain from overwork, special provision 
is made in the nervous system for reflex actions. It 
is a part of the duty of the spinal cord to act as a reflex 
center. Walking, again, furnishes us with a good ex- 
ample. When the afferent nerves report that the body 
is out of balance and falling forward ^^■ith only one foot 
on the ground, the report goes no farther than the 
spinal cord when the efferent nerves carry back in- 



THE BASIS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 1 53 

structions to the muscles to move the other foot for- 
ward. It appears that the spinal cord has observed 
this invariable action so many times that it does not 
consider it worth while to report the matter to the 
brain but attends to it at once. 

There are also reflex centers situated at convenient 
places in the body. They are composed of groups 
of nerve cells and are collectively called ganglia. They 
have the control of glands and other organs whose 
actions have no need to come under the commands 
of the will. 

It is not the intention of this work to go into a de- 
tailed description of the nervous system, but only to 
make such observations as will serve as a working basis 
for the physiological aspects of mental and moral 
actions. The student is supposed to be familiar with 
the com.m.on facts of physiology and will learn what- 
ever else is requisite under more favorable circum- 
stances, when he comes to psychology proper. One 
further thought, however, may receive brief atten- 
tion. 

The Care of the Nervous System. — Owing to the ex- 
treme delicacy of the nervous system in its composition 
and structure it is in a high degree susceptible to dis- 
ease, and we find, as we might expect, many nervous 
disorders. In a world of sickness, with knowledge lim- 
ited, with bodies so delicate that a little cold makes us 
shiver and a little heat overcomes us, with "the thou- 
sand ills that flesh is heir to," it is no small matter to 



154 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

keep ourselves well and happy and in good working 
order. 

The study of physiology and hygiene affords the 
teacher an excellent opportunity for training children 
in the care of health. Here they learn the structure 
of the body and its uses and abuses; its need of exer- 
cise, food and pure air. They learn that the surest 
prevention of sickness is not the dread of disease nor 
hothouse, treatment, but vigor of body, cheerfulness 
of mind and moral conduct. Fortunately these qual- 
ities appeal to all right-minded people and most strongly 
to the young. Likewise the things that promote health 
are the things that nature demands, food, exercise, 
sleep, air. A close study of nature will solve most of 
our physical problems. 

The influence of the mind over bodily conditions 
must not be overlooked. The nerves are especially 
susceptible to mental states. When peace and hope 
and good cheer reign in the mind the nerves are at 
their best. Anything that upsets the mental equilib- 
rium affects the nerves first of all. This has been 
proved by many tests. Sudden fear will often para- 
lyze the nerves so that the muscles cannot act in obedi- 
ence to the will. Anger acts for a time as a stimulus 
to the nerves, but when the reaction comes they are 
greatly weakened. All evil passions are detrimental 
to the nerves, and despair enfeebles them at times to 
prostration. Excessive grief and prolonged sorrow are 
likewise injurious. 



THE BASIS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 1 55 

On the other hand the better emotions are health 
promoting. Happiness, comfort, peace of mind, good 
will, help to keep the strength up to the highest notch. 
This is one of the beneficent provisions of a wise 
Creator. It is an encouragement towards righteous 
living. Kind acts are better than medicine; they are 
beneficial to both doer and receiver. Laughter is a 
healthful tonic, and "A merry countenance doeth good 
like a medicine." 

These facts are well established and should serve 
as beacon lights to the teacher. All righteous emotions 
should be cultivated, filial affection, kindness to friends 
and to animals, courage, hopefulness. These are 
qualities that give zest to life and make companion- 
ship desirable. Patience should be taught not only 
in axiomatic form but by illustrations and concrete 
examples. It should be shown that patient endurance 
is better for the health than flying into a passion or 
yielding to despair. A hot rebuke may be met with a 
laugh or turned aside with a joke. "A soft answer 
turneth away wrath." 

It is conducive to both health and happiness to con- 
trol the temper. Children should be taught that it is a 
part of the discipline of life to refrain from giving 
offense, and a mark of a lady or a gentleman to be slow 
in resentment. "Slow to anger, temperate in wrath, 
forgiving in disposition," should be more than mere 
phrases, they should be the every day rules of life. 
Courage is a better safeguard against violence than 



156 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

cowardice. When disputes arise avoid ciuarreling, and 
under threats show no fear but refrain from threatening 
or boasting in return. If danger cannot be righteously 
avoided it should be faced unflinchingly; physical 
bumps and bruises are less injurious than the mental 
torture of abject fear or the depressing effects of coward- 
ice. We should strive to outdo our companions in 
cheerful amenities but let them outdo us in rudeness 
and braggadocio. They will soon learn which is the 
more admirable. 

The Effect of Fatigue upon the Nerves. — If a simple 
instrument could be devised to measure the working 
power of the nerA-'ous system it would be seen that 
fatigue has a marked effect. There is a device called a 
lung tester that shows it clearly in one respect, namely, 
the ability under vary-ing conditions to inhale air into 
the lungs. The capacity of the lungs varies in persons 
of the same age and size, but the instrument shows 
that an individual can inhale fewer cubic inches when 
fatigued than when not. Fatigue as used here does 
not mean out of breath but weariness from continued 
exertion. A working man can inhale more by several 
cubic inches after a uSunday's rest than at the end of the 
week. He can inhale more in the morning than at 
night. It is not a question of the size of the lung 
cavities, it is a question of the power of the nerves and 
the muscles. 

A teacher should be a judge of the working capacity 
of his pupils and should not permit them to overtax 



THE BASIS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY 1 57 

their powers. Some children can do a given amount 
of work much more easily than others, and the weaker 
ones are liable to overdo their strength in the effort 
to keep up. Obviously this should not be allowed. 
Resting spells should be frequent, more frequent for 
the smaller and weaker ones, and the easier parts of 
the day's work should be given toward the close of the 
sessions. Signs of extreme weariness in any pupil 
should be quickly noted and an opportunity given for 
rest and even for sleep if nature demands it. In the 
study of fatigue it will be observed that change of work 
is often all that is needed. Short lessons with frequent 
change are best for young students. 

Nervous Disorders. — Some children are spoken of by 
their parents as "nervous." The term doubtless covers 
not only a multitude of sins but a large amount of ig- 
norance as well, but we have learned to recognize the 
type. These "nervous" ones are usually pale and 
anemic, easily startled, excitable, lacking in self-control, 
susceptible to every passing mood of companions, 
and upon slight provocation put entirely out of work- 
ing order. In diagnosing disorders it is necessary to 
have a sharp lookout for causes. To discover the 
cause and remove it is better than any temporary 
relief of the suffering. 

The causes of "nervousness" are numerous, but in 
the case of a child the cause is likely to result from one 
or more of the following conditions: Lack of sufficient 
nourishment, too much work and too little play, too 



158 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

much service and too little love, the strenuous life of car- 
ing for younger children, scolding, nagging, complaining. 
If any of these are playing a part in the child's life, it is 
needless to look further; if not, a physician had better 
be consulted. 

In addition to plenty of food, rest, play and sleep, 
what a nervous child needs is the loving encouragement 
of a good, strong, hopeful, cheerful, warm-hearted 
teacher or companion. Fortunately, with most people 
health is more catching than disease, hopefulness than 
despondency, and all good qualities than all bad qual- 
ities. It must be so, and it is so, otherwise we should 
all be compelled to lapse into permanent pessimism 
and this world would quickly go to the dogs. For- 
tunately, also, it does not require a highly educated 
person to teach and practice the health giving virtues. 
It can as well be done and is as likely to be done by 
the country or village schoolmaster as by the college 
professor. 



CHAPTER IX 
SENSATION 

Sensation is the effect made upon the mind by the 
functioning of a sense organ. By it we become aware 
of light, sound, odor, taste and contact. The sense 
organs bring these phenomena to the mind. With- 
out the sense organs, or something to take their place, 
we could have no experimental knowledge of any of 
them. Without eyes we should have no knowledge 
of light, and so far as we are concerned light would 
have no existence. 

Sound is merely the mind taking notice of the sudden 
activity of certain brain cells; these cells were aroused 
by a like activity of the cells of the auditory nerve, and 
it in turn was put into action by the vibrating of the 
tympanic membrane, which lastly is but a continua- 
tion of vibrations of the atmosphere caused by con- 
cussion. That is all there is to it except that the mind 
is able by previous experience to tell by the activity of 
the brain cells what caused this particular concussion of 
the atmosphere. To put it the other way about, a bell 
is struck causing it to vibrate, the vibrations are com- 
municated to the atmosphere, from the atmosphere 
through the tympanum of the ear, from there to the au- 

159 



l6o THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ditory nerve, and from it to certain brain cells whose 
business it is to attend to reports of this particular nerve. 
The mind takes note of the agitation of these cells and, 
remembering the way they always act when a bell 
has been struck, interprets accordingly. If any one 
of the connecting media were wanting, the air, the 
tympanum or the auditory nerve, the mind would not 
know that the bell had been struck. The cells would 
still be there, perfectly able to perform their function, 
but they would have no way of coming in contact with 
the bell. 

How the mind which is immaterial can have knowl- 
edge of the workings of material objects has not yet 
been discovered by man. It is as great a myster}' as 
how the mind can go on living, knowing and acting 
in a spirit world after the body has perished; only the 
one we know and the other we can only grasp by faith. 

The Value of Experience in Interpreting Sensations. — 
Without experience, the extension of self, one could 
never know the meaning of "bell" or any other sound 
producing object and the same would be true of other 
sensations. To an infant the tone of a bell is merely a 
sound, it conveys no meaning. If its first experience 
is with a toy bell it will connect all similar sounds with 
the plaything. Later it may learn that meals are an- 
nounced by a bell ; next it may learn that church serv- 
ices are so announced; and later still it will come to 
know of school bells, fire alarm bells and many others, 
until it acquires a full comprehension of the mean- 



SENSATION l6l 

ing of the sound. But all this requires a multitude of 
experiences and a great fund of knowledge. To know 
the meaning of the church bell one would have to know 
about God and worship and church buildings and as- 
semblies and preaching and praying and singing. 

The Co-operation of the Sense Organs in Acquiring 
Experience. — To carry the illustration still further if the 
child had only the one sense by which to interpret he 
would be a long time in gathering much information 
concerning bells. The sense of sight will tell him almost 
as much as that of hearing. So it is with all our sen- 
sations, we bring the other senses to bear upon them, 
we submit them to every test we can think of in order 
to gain experience. One thing is worth noticing how- 
ever, and that is that none of the sense organs can ever 
do the actual work of one that is lost or wanting. We 
might know very well by sight alone the meaning of 
bell but we should never know what its sound was for 
no other sense than that of hearing can interpret air 
vibrations or produce anything like sound. 

It is obvious then that the one thing needful in early 
life is experience, and that to shut a child away from 
the world around him, to limit his observations and 
experiments to a few things is folly and wickedness. 
Nature provides us with a demand for investigation, 
and a child especially should have as large and free a 
scope as safety and circumstances will permit. 

Experience not only sharpens the wits but the senses 
as well. It is the principal element in training. In 



1 62 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

fact to provide ways and means for and to supervise 
experience is about all there is to training. The only 
way we can cause anything to grow is by furnishing 
the materials for its growth, and furthermore these 
materials must be provided during the growing period 
or they will avail nothing. We can expend a great deal 
of care in supplying the materials for the growth of a 
plant, seeing that it gets air, sunshine, water, soil, and 
rest in proper proportions, and be abundantly rewarded 
for our pains. In addition to supplying materials for 
growth we can make the plant more beautiful and more 
useful by directing its growth, by pruning it, keeping 
it clean, and protecting it from destroying insects and 
the extremes of heat and cold. 

Thus plant growing furnishes a very good model 
for child training. We cannot by taking thought add 
one cubit to the stature or make one hair white or 
black, but we can see that the child, like the plant, is 
brought into the proper relation with the materials for 
his growth. We can attend to the pruning, the clean- 
ing, and the protecting; and the cubits and the coloring, 
the vigor and the beauty will take care of themselves. 

The Attributes of Sensations. — We shall be the better 
able to understand the nature of sensations, their uses 
and abuses, if we study them with reference to their 
distinguishing features. The principal ones are quality, 
quantity, duration, intensity, and extensity. These we 
shall now consider in their order. 

Quality. — Quality is the characteristic feature of a 



SENSATION 163 

sensation by which we distinguish it from all other sen- 
sations; it is the key to its identity. After we have once 
learned the peculiar quality of a sensation and become 
familiar with that quality there is no danger of not being 
able to recognize it thereafter. For instance the quality 
of the tone of a violin is different from that of an organ, 
a piano, or any other musical instrument; and by this 
quality we can single it out from all others after a few 
experiences. This is easy, but to detect the difference 
in tone between two violins of about the same pattern 
is not so easy though to a trained ear there is a distinct 
difference. This again shows the value of experience. 

All sensations produced by the different sense organs 
have qualities peculiar to themselves. Sounds differ in 
quality from odors, tastes, and sights, and so in greater 
or less degree from the sensations of each of the other 
sense organs. Taste is somewhat closely related to 
touch, because the latter is necessary to the former and 
because the tongue is a very good organ of touch. Still, 
when we speak of the taste there is no danger of con- 
fusing it with the feel of an object. On the other hand, 
the sense of smell is no doubt often mistaken for the 
sense of taste, and people who have lost the sense of 
smell are likely to be poor tasters. 

As has been suggested the ability to discern the finer 
qualities of sensations is a matter of training and is a 
part of everyone's education. Even then no one can 
become an expert in all lines. A musician might be 
able to recognize the tones of a thousand different 



164 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

violins, to detect minute variations in pitch, and many 
Dther fine points that the average Hstener would not 
notice, and yet a horse trainer might consider him a 
very poor judge of horses. Each is an expert in his o\\n 
line. Any one by perseverance in painstaking effort 
can become skilled in some things and a good judge 
of many things. Particular lines or occupations are 
matters of choice, talent, adaptation, and effort. The 
training of children should in most cases be general 
rather than special. 

Quantity. — The quantity of a sensation depends upon 
the mass of the stimulus. A large light produces more 
sensation than a small one, and a spoonful of salt more 
than a pinch. It takes a certain amount of anything 
to arouse a sense organ at all, while a very great amount 
produces a sensation quite different from the ordinary. 
An average amount of light is pleasant to the eye but a 
very great or a very small amount is painful. There 
must be sixteen vibrations of air per second before the 
sense of hearing will respond, and when the number has 
reached about thirty-six thousand per second the re- 
sponse ceases. A pinch of salt is pleasant to the taste, 
the smallest grain could not be tasted and a large 
amount would be decidedly disagreeable. A certain 
amount of perfume is delicious, too much is oppressive, 
and so on. 

In judging the quantity of sensations distance must 
be taken into consideration in the cases of seeing, hear- 
ing, and smelling. A large light at a distance may pro- 



SENSATION 165 

duce no greater effect upon the eye than a small one 
nearby. This does not mean that the quantity of the 
sensation has ceased to depend upon the mass; the small 
light at the same distance might not be visible at all. 
The rule for distance is the same as that for the at- 
traction of gravitation, the quantity of the sensation 
is in inverse proportion to the square of the distance 
of the stimulus from the sense organ. That is, if a 100 
candle power light produces a certain sensation at 
50 feet it will require a 400 candle power light to produce 
the same sensation at 100 feet. This can be mathe- 
matically proved with a stereopticon by placing the 
instrument ten feet from the curtain and then removing 
it to twenty feet, measuring the area covered by the 
light in each case. It will be seen that the area covered 
at twenty feet is four times as great as at ten feet. This 
means that there is only one fourth as much light on 
any square inch of surface at twenty feet as there was 
at ten feet. The same rule obtains in hearing and in 
smelling. 

The ability to judge of the distance of an object by 
knowing its mass, or to judge of its mass by knowing 
the distance is, like the ability to judge of the quality 
of sensations, a matter of training or experience, the 
wider our field of acquaintance and the more extensive 
our experience the better our judgment. 

Duration. — The time required for a stimulus to make 
an impression upon a sense organ is variable, depending 
upon a number of factors as attention, alertness of 



1 66 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

mind, vigor of body, fatigue. That a perceptible time 
is required to produce a definite sensation can be shown 
in several ways. When a wheel is revolving rapidly 
we cannot see the spokes, but an instantaneous photo- 
graph might reveal each one distinctly. An object can 
be passed before the eyes and removed again before we 
can get an impression of it. Psychological laboratories 
have devices for testing the rapidity of action of the 
sense organs. 

Again, after an impression has been made a little 
time must elapse before it is removed, the duration 
depending apparently upon the intensity of the stim- 
ulus and the length of time employed in acting upon 
the sense organ. This can be tested in the case of sight 
impressions by looking steadily at a window for a short 
time and then closing the eyes. It will be observed 
that the image remains for some time and that it varies 
with the period employed in acquiring it. This action 
of the eyes is something like the dissolving views of a 
lantern, one picture gradually fades away and another 
as gradually takes its place. The same thing is true 
in var\'ing degrees with the other sense organs. Sound 
impressions appear to be made more rapidly and are 
more readily distinguished one from another than those 
of sight. 

The most prominent factor in gaining the impressions 
of the sense organs is attention, and it is the one factor 
that we can or should always have under control. 
We cannot always have the necessary amount of light 



SENSATION 167 

for seeing or the proper degree of quietness for hearing, 
nor can we always be in the best physical condition; 
but the attention is something we should learn to master. 
We are a curious composition of mind and matter. 
The body cannot accomplish anything except in con- 
junction with the mind. The eye is as good a photo- 
graphing lens as any photographer possesses, but the 
picture it takes will leave no impression unless the mind 
is giving attention ; yet, if the mind attends, the image 
will last as long as it is needed or indefinitely. We see, 
then, that attention is one of the great desiderata and 
its cultivation is of the first importance. 

Some persons are naturally much more sensitive 
to stimuli than others and some are quicker to respond 
than others. These individual peculiarities should be 
carefully noted by teachers when they are instructing 
children. Health, happiness, fatigue, all have their 
bearings; but these will be spoken of under the care of 
the special sense organs. 

Extensity and Intensity. — The term extensity refers 
to the area of surface of the stimulus while intensity 
means the rapidity or concentration of strength with 
which the stimulus strikes the sense organ. A given 
amount of light diffused might be very gentle in its 
effect upon the eyes, but if concentrated into a point 
it might be fierce enough to be scarcely endurable. 
The sun's rays on the body may afford scarcely enough 
heat for comfort but if concentrated through a three 
inch lens they will quickly burn the skin. 



1 68 THE TILMNING OF CHILDREN 

This phenomenon of diffusion and concentration is 
taken advantage of to assist faulty sight by means of 
spectacles, and dulled hearing by means of a trumpet- 
shaped instrument that brings to the tympanum more 
air waves than the outer ear could gather. 



CHAPTER X 
THE SENSE ORGANS 

The sense organs are the eyes, the ears, the nose, the 
tongue, and the fingers as special sense organs of touch. 
The whole body is more or less an organ of touch, some 
parts being much more sensitive than others. Sensa- 
tions of weight are sometimes classed as muscular while 
feelings of oppression, of aches and pains, comfort and 
discomfort, hunger and thirst are classed under touch 
though they are quite different from what we ordinarily 
understand by the term. We shall study these sense 
organs in the order given above. 

The Eyes. — Divine wisdom is nowhere better exem- 
plified in physical mechanism than in the provision 
made for seeing. The delicacy of the structure of the 
eyes, their many parts so fitly joined and working to- 
gether, their adaptations, their location, their natural 
provisions for preservation and protection combine 
to make them the most perfect and wonderful bit of 
machinery in the world. Their location under the bony 
arches of the forehead, the depth of their sockets, their 
self-moving and self-adjusting lids, their provision for 
oiling, their tear glands and ducts, their hair awnings 
on the brows and dust shields on the lids, their readi- 

169 



170 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ness and facility of movement, their alignment for 
working in pairs, the automatic adjustment of the 
pupils for admitting a greater or less amount of light 
according to the supply, all these and many other 
nicely adapted contrivances attest the perfect wisdom 
of the Creator. 

The Sense of Sight. — This sense as a source of in- 
formation usually far exceeds that of any of the others. 
By it we become aware of most of the objects around us, 
and by it we discover much of what we need to know 
about them. The sense of sight gives us acute pleasure 
and much general satisfaction. One would need to be 
deprived of it for a time before he could fully realize 
its benefits. We are so accustomed to seeing that we do 
not stop to consider the tens of thousands of uses to 
which we put our eyes. Since they are so necessary 
to our happiness and to our usefulness they merit our 
special study both as to their nature and to the part 
they play in our education, development, and life. 

The stimulus that sets the eye into action and gives 
us the sense of seeing is light. Light, when reflected 
into the eye from an object, gives us the sensation of 
brightness or of color. Light has its source in some 
luminous body, as the sun, and is supposed to be con- 
^^eyed to us by means of waves of ether. This latter 
is a substance that pervades all space and is in constant 
motion like the air or the waves of the sea. The theory 
of the ether and the way it conveys rays of light from 
the sun to the earth is that the heat of the sun sets the 



THE SENSE ORGANS 171 

ether into motion in the form of waves, and that these 
waves move with incomprehensible rapidity so that 
they break upon the eye, as waves of water break upon 
the shore, at the rate of many milhons a second. The 
ether itself does not travel from sun to earth but only 
the waves. The motion is caused by one particle 
striking against another particle, and this in turn trans- 
mitting its motion to another, and so on until an object 
is reached. It is similar to the motion of electricity 
in sending messages from one city to another or across 
the ocean. 

When rays of light are reflected from an object into 
the eye, an image of the object is formed on the retina. 
The image of ourselves that we see when we look into 
another person's eye is not the one that is on the retina. 
What we see there is simply a reflection from the sur- 
face of the eye acting as a mirror. The image on the 
retina is considerably larger than this and is upside 
down. This image, or the rays of light which produce it, 
stimulates the cells of the retina into some kind of ac- 
tivity the nature of which is not known; this activity is 
transmitted through the optic nerve to the brain cells at 
the roots of the nerve, and a certain group there are 
energized in the same mysterious manner. The energy 
of these brain cells is what the mind is taking note of 
when it is "seeing," or perhaps that energy is the mind 
seeing. Of one thing we are certain, the mind actually 
sees neither the object nor the image upon the retina but 
gets its knowledge from the energization of the brain 



172 Till': TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

cells. If the two optic nerves could be suddenly severed 
without disturbing the rest of the apparatus the image 
might remain on the retina and the cells there be 
energized, but the cells in the brain would remain qui- 
escent because there could be no communication be- 
tween the two, and the result would be absolute dark- 
ness. The fact that the activity of a little group of 
brain cells can be interpreted into a tree with its leaves 
and branches and a thousand other details is infinitely 
more wonderful than the mechanism of the eye. The 
eye can be in a sense imitated by man, but the per- 
formances of the mind are utterly beyond his grasp. 

Colors, — The rapidity with which the waves of ether 
break upon the retina gives to the mind the distinction 
of colors. To produce the sensation of red there must 
be over four hundred trillions of vibrations per second, 
while to produce the sensation of violet there must 
be nearly eight hundred trillions per second. Between 
these two extremes are the other colors of what is 
known as the spectrum. These may be seen in the rain- 
bow or on the wall by allowing the rays of the sun to 
pass through a glass prism, and in their order as thus 
shown are known as violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, 
orange, and red. White is the combination of all colors 
while black shows the absence of all. There are other 
colors not found in the spectrum that arc the com- 
pounds of one or more of those of the spectrum com- 
bined with white or gray or black. Pink, brown, olive, 
maroon are examples of these. The varying shades of 



THE SENSE ORGANS 1 73 

colors that may be discerned by a trained mind run 
into many hundreds. 

The time to train the mind to a ready discrimination 
of colors is in the early years of school life. The fact of 
color blindness noted in many adults is doubtless due 
to the neglect of the faculty of discrimination in early 
youth. Persons who have much to do with colors as 
in the handling of cloth, ribbons, and the like, have a 
much more acute sense of differences than those who 
have little to do with them. 

Color materials for school purposes are bountifully 
supplied in nature. The varying shades of green in 
trees and grass, the blue of the sky, the hues of the birds 
and the flowers, and the ever changing clouds furnish 
a variety that will yield both information and enjoy- 
ment. The splendor of the sunset amid fleecy clouds 
and the glory of the autumnal foliage need only to be 
pointed out to be appreciated by children of school age. 

Taste in making combinations is acquired by ex- 
perience and practice. It can be cultivated by arrang- 
ing flowers into bouquets and by small bits of paper 
of different colors cut into any desired shape; these 
may be arranged in patterns, at first, from easy designs, 
then more complicated as the learner advances. Small 
pupils are often put to stringing these paper circles or 
squares with a needle and thread with instructions 
to put the colors in a certain order. 

Distinguishing Form. — In addition to brightness and 
color the eye also takes in the idea of form. The eye 



174 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

is no doubt greatly assisted in judging forms by the 
experience of handling and measuring, but however 
that may be, the fact remains that we learn to judge 
of forms by the eye alone. The principal thing in train- 
ing the judgment of children in this particular is to give 
them plenty of experience together with the names of 
many of the conventional forms as round, square, ob- 
long, oval, spherical, cylindrical, examples always being 
shown as the names are taught. Likewise they should 
become familiar with the forms of leaves as hastate, 
serrate, oval, indented, smooth, etc. The best time to 
acquire names is in early youth, provided the objects 
are presented at the same time and enough information 
furnished to make an impression on the memor>\ If a 
teacher will learn to recognize the world of educational 
material within easy walking distance of his schoolhouse 
and how to use it intelligently, he will thereby increase 
by man}^ fold the value of his instruction. 

The perception of three dimensions by sight alone 
seems to be due to light and shade coupled with the 
previous experience of the sense of touch. The appear- 
ance of the third dimension in paintings and drawings 
is brought about by shading. The idea of density is also 
suggested by heavy shading. 

Distance. — Distance is any definite or limited extent 
of space. Just how space is comprehended by sight 
is not easily explained. It is very vague in childhood 
gradually growing more and more definite with ex- 
perience. A child's horizon widens in proportion to the 



THE SENSE ORGANS 175 

investigations he is able or permitted to make. To 
judge distances accurately requires much practice. 
The units of measurements should be taught early, 
and experiments with them carried on all through the 
grades. Many persons go through life with only a vague 
idea of feet, yards, rods, and miles. These might 
just as well have had accurate conceptions if only 
teachers had taken a little trouble to furnish informa- 
tion and the opportunity for investigation. The units 
can easily be provided, and the children will take a 
great deal of interest in estimating distances and then 
measuring them to determine the accuracy of their 
judgment. 

Incorrect Vision. — Faulty vision is quite common 
among children even at the beginning of school age and 
appears to increase rapidly through the grades. The 
causes are numerous and varied, but a large percentage 
of the cases of eye trouble is due to carelessness, neglect 
of slight ailments, and ignorance of what the eye is 
capable of enduring without injury. Tests carefully 
made in many large schools show that, under the best 
conditions of light and care, the number of children 
afflicted with abnormal vision runs from eight to six- 
teen per cent, while under the worst conditions the num- 
ber runs as high as fifty per cent. 

A few simple rules for the protection and the care of 
the eyes should be steadily adhered to in every school 
room. First, there should be an abundance of light as 
evenly distributed as possible. " No one can afford to 



176 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

use his eyes in a failing or feeble light. Second, the 
seats should be so arranged that the students will not 
sit facing the windows; this is important for the reason 
that when the eyes face the light the pupils grow 
smaller and when they return to the book too little 
light enters until the eyes are again adjusted. Fre- 
quent repetitions of this weary the muscles and weaken 
the organs. Third, the eye strain in long continued 
study is very great and must be avoided or at least 
ameliorated by frequent rests. The eyes of children 
previous to entering school have not been accustomed 
to looking at very small objects continuously, and 
the transition should be made very gradually. Night 
study should be entirely prohibited to students below 
the high school. Much of the poor eye-sight of recent 
generations is undoubtedly attributable to school work; 
there are too many children wearing glasses, and too 
many more that ought to be, to admit of any doubt in 
the matter. Fourth, no books of fine print should be 
allowed in the hands of pupils in the grades, neither 
any whose pages are soiled or the tj-pe rendered ob- 
scure in any way. In the olden days much was said 
about the preservation of books and they were handed 
down from child to child, and even from parent to child, 
and made to do duty when the pages were yellow and 
the words dim — and all this for the sake of economy. 
Modern science has discovered that true economy does 
not lie in the preservation of the books but rather in 
saving the eyes and safeguarding the health. 



THE SENSE ORGANS 1 77 

The Sense of Hearing. — Civilization has probably 
dulled the hearing of mankind. The savage depended 
largely upon this sense for the detection of game and 
for apprising himself of the approach or whereabouts 
of his enemies, and so cultivated its acuteness to a high 
degree. Both of these uses have practically been re- 
moved and since the need for acute hearing is not 
so great its cultivation has slackened. To the savage 
every sound had a meaning. He studied the various 
notes of the birds and the calls of animals until he knew 
the meaning of each as well as they. All this, as well 
as the keenest observation of sight, was necessary to his 
existence; but to civilized man it is not so. If we wish 
to keep our senses up to the standard of the savage 
we must find the stimulus in some other source. 

Fortunately there is sufficient if we will but look for 
it. It is a part of the work of the scientist and student 
of nature to recognize and interpret the sounds of 
nature, beasts, birds, and insects; and the reward in 
knowledge and appreciation is amply sufficient to repay 
all the efforts required to master them. Civilized man 
is far better able than the savage to appreciate the har- 
miony and the music in the sounds of nature. The lore 
of the woods is ever attractive to children, as witness 
the popularity of Longfellow's Hiawatha and of nature 
books in countless variety. There is no more delight- 
ful way of training the hearing of children than to teach 
them to distinguish the notes of birds and insects in the 
varying seasons of the year. The knowledge they thus 
12 



178 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

gather will materially add to their interest in nature 
study and will give them a zest for the literature on 
these subjects. 

Voice Culture. — There are many little corrections 
that can be made in children's voices so that they shall 
not speak too loud or too low and that their tones shall 
be pleasant to the ear. This instruction should be 
given both in conversation and in reading. Taste in 
hearing needs cultivation so that one may judge rightly 
of tones made in reading, speaking, and singing. The 
control of the breathing, the ready use of all the vocal 
organs, and the cultivation of pleasing tones should 
have much attention. When children have correct 
standards before them and know what is desired they 
will be quick in acquiring proficiency, but without an 
adequate idea of what is right they cannot make prog- 
ress. It is the teacher's duty to set the standard and to 
furnish exercises that are interesting and helpful. There 
may be defects in the vocal organs that will need to be 
remedied; these will be spoken of in the next chapter. 

The mind should be cultivated to appreciate good 
music, both vocal and instrumental. Singing should 
have a part in the exercises of each day in every school. 
Every teacher should know how to sing and to lead 
singing. The rudiments of vocal music should be 
taught from the first grade onward. School song books 
are easily obtained and a sufficient number should be 
provided so that all pupils may take part in the singing 
and in the vocal exercises. 



THE SENSE ORGANS 179 

Many corrections will be necessary in singing as well 
as in reading and speaking. Some will be ver}^ timid 
about making a noise at all, while others will have to 
learn that singing does not consist in yelling. There 
will be nasal tones and screechings and gutturals and 
mumblings and other difficulties that will tax the pa- 
tience and kindly efforts of the teacher, but the reward 
will surely come. Most of the children will sing well in 
spite of lack of early training, and the whole school 
will soon know the difference between correct and in- 
correct singing. 

It is doubtful if the hearing can be cultivated to a 
high degree of excellence without being accompanied 
with a good voice; besides, a good voice, well modulated 
and well trained, is a valuable acquisition, one that is 
not common but might be possessed by nearly every 
one if the means for its cultivation were provided in 
early life. Many persons with excellent voice capacity 
go through life missing a great deal of pleasure to them- 
selves and to their friends because of this lack of early 
training. 

The Sense of Taste. — Taste is that power of the mind 
acting through the sense organs that enables us to 
recognize certain differences in the flavor of articles of 
food and to test substances the edibility or the identity 
of which we are in doubt; it also adds to the enjoyment 
of eating. Many foods and drinks are sought more for 
their pleasant taste than for any other qualities they 
may possess. Tastes are divided into sweet, sour. 



l8o THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

bitter, and salt. Wliile there is an infinite number of 
variations, every substance that has taste at all has one 
or more of these four qualities. 

The nerve of taste, called the gustatory nerve, is con- 
nected b)^ numerous branches with little groups of 
cells called taste buds situated on the upper surface, 
the sides and the end of the tongue, and in the soft 
palate. To be tasted, a substance must be in liquid 
form and must "be brought into contact with the taste 
buds. It does not appear that these buds all perform 
the same office. The area for sweet and salt appears to 
be on the tip and adjacent parts, for sour on the sides, 
and for bitter on the back part of the tongue. 

One would not suppose that the sense of taste could 
have much to do with the training of the mind and the 
character, but from a commercial standpoint, at least, 
it outranks most of the other senses. The partiality of 
civilized man for flavor is responsible for a large pro- 
portion of the trade of the world. All climates and all 
countries are combed for delicacies, which are brought 
thousands of miles over sea and land to our doors, and 
presented to us in forms that are most tempting to the 
palate. Manufacturers of food products are every- 
where pandering to taste, and fortunes are spent in the 
indulgence of it. 

The teacher may not assure himself that the cultiva- 
tion of taste has nothing to do with the forming of 
character, for it has much. Abnormal appetite and 
over-eating are almost entirely due to the gratification 



THE SENSE ORGANS l8l 

of this sense. Highly spiced foods and artificial flavors 
are indulged in until they are craved and plain food is 
no longer satisfying to the desires. The high cost of 
natural flavors causes the morally weak trader to 
stoop to adulterations, and life and health are endan- 
gered. For the sake of appetite, or for the greed and 
gain that it leads to, men will stultify their consciences 
and every crime in the calendar is committed. 

Next to the home, the school is the most potent factor 
in character forming, and whatever can be done toward 
the preservation of simple taste and plain living ought 
not to be neglected. With most people, as riches in- 
crease, luxury and extravagance are indulged in and 
plain food and plain living threaten to become a badge 
of poverty if not of disgrace. There are some of the 
wealthy and refined yet remaining who preach and 
practice the simple life ; but, unless parents and teachers 
present the m.atter in its true light, they are likely to 
be considered old-fashioned and out of date rather than 
as examples to be followed. 

The Sense of Smell. — The olfactory nerve is lo- 
cated in the brain from whence it extends to the mu- 
cous membrane of the nose, the nerve .ends covering but 
a small area in the back part of the nasal cavities. 
Any object which has odor is constantly giving off 
small particles of its substance which float in the air; 
these particles are drawn into the nostrils by breathing 
or sniffing, and lodging on the mucous membrane are 
brought into contact with the nerve ends and the stim- 



l82 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ulation is carried to the brain by the olfactory nerve. 

Smells are named for the most part from the objects 
from which they emanate and are classed as agreeable 
or disagreeable. Those that are pleasant are often 
further described as fragrant, delightful, delicious. 
When we say an object smells sour we are relating the 
smell with the taste, having tested both when the sub- 
stance was in a fermented condition. 

Smell has two uses, that of giving pleasure to the 
sense and that of protection against poisonous sub- 
stances. When things smell disagreeably, they are 
likely to be poisonous and we are thus warned against 
them. Bad smells are scarcely endurable, and for this 
reason we are more particular than we otherv/ise would 
be about pure air and cleanly surroundings. It is a 
great safeguard against vitiated air in schoolrooms and 
sleeping rooms, but one often needs to enter the room 
from the pure air outside to be aware of its condition. 

The value of the sense of smell to the commercial 
world is not so great as that of the sense of taste, 
nevertheless it is considerable. The industry of pro- 
viding perfumery for the market is a large one. The 
cultivation of flowers for perfumes, their manufacture 
and sale, afford a means of livelihood to many thou- 
sands of people. Cologne in Germany and Paris in 
France are great centers for the manufacture and trade 
of perfumes. 

The study of the acuteness of this sense in animals is 
very interesting. The powers of scent of certain breeds 



THE SENSE ORGANS 1 83 

of dogs is truly marvelous and is doubtless a much more 
important feature in their lives than any other sense. 
]\'Iany others of the lower animals have a much keener 
sense of smell than man, but that it can be greatly cul- 
tivated in the latter when other senses are lacking is 
well known. The blind, for instance, often obtain from 
it a vast amount of information which others get with 
their eyes. 

The Sense of Touch. — ^This is the one sense that is 
common to all living creatures and is never entirely 
lost while life lasts. While the lingers are its special 
organs all parts of the body are to a greater or less de- 
gree sensitive to touch. On the surface of the body it 
is dependent upon a multitude of very fine nerves that 
are distributed everywhere through the skin but in 
some places much more plentifully than in others. It 
is also probable that nerves of touch in the fingers are 
more sensitive from constant use than those in other 
parts. The sense of touch includes the sense of temper- 
ature but, while some parts of the body are more sensi- 
tive to heat and cold than other parts, the fingers are 
not special organs for its use. 

The sense of touch is very fine when cultivated to 
its full capacity. It is of the greatest benefit to those 
who are blind. Through it they may learn to read, 
write, play on musical instruments and do almost any 
kind of work that does not require too much moving 
about. The amount of skill acquired in a great variety 
of occupations by many persons who have lost their 



1 84 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

eyesight is astonishing. The one thing needful for 
children who are blind is that they should have the 
best instruction obtainable while they are young. 
When such instruction is provided they are often able 
to keep pace with those who have the use of their eyes, 
as witness the cases of Laura Bridgman and Helen 
Keller. 

Schools for the blind are provided in probably every 
state in the Union, but many parents are averse to 
sending their unfortunate children to these schools, 
preferring to let them remain in ignorance rather than 
trust their care to others and thus rendering the mis- 
fortune of these little ones infinitely greater than it 
need be. When a teacher finds a blind child in his dis- 
trict he should use his utmost efforts to persuade the 
parents to send such a one to the school provided for 
his or her special benefit. Both the care and the in- 
struction in these schools are usually far better than 
the parents can possibly give. 

The sense of touch has a commercial value. Most 
people learn to judge of the texture of cloth by the 
feel of it. We can judge of the qualities of many things 
by the way they respond to the sense of touch. It is 
little trouble to train pupils in the use of this sense if 
only the materials can be provided. There is a strong 
natural desire on the part of children to handle things. 
There are so many things they can learn about objects 
by getting their hands on them that they are prone 
to carry the matter too far. In cultivating the sense 



THE SENSE ORGANS 185 

of touch a part of the instruction should be not to 
meddle with things that belong to other people, nor 
to handle out of their own domain without express 
permission. 

Outside of the kindergartens and the primary^ de- 
partments in the cities, there is little attempted in the 
schools toward sense training. A book containing sim- 
ple descriptions of sense training devices in the hands 
of every teacher would be exceedingly helpful. It is 
true that country children have superior opportunities 
for this training, yet they need the help of the schools 
in this as in all other lines of study. The material 
while abundant enough is not organized and put into 
form so that children can recognize it and apply it to 
their needs. 



CHAPTER XI 
THE CARE OF THE SENSE ORGANS 

Far too little attention is paid to the care of the 
special organs of sense. This is perhaps due to the 
fact that they are not classed among the "dial organs. 
We can lose any or all of them, except the sense of 
touch, and still live and in other respects enjoy good 
health. When the eyes, the ears, the nose or the throat 
are afflicted we are usually more concerned for relief 
from the suffering than we are for the preservation of 
the organs themselves. We should remember that 
pain is given expressly as a warning that some part of 
the body is receiving more or less serious injury. 

There are many infectious diseases incident to child- 
hood that permanently impair the delicate sense organs. 
These leave in their wake eye trouble, ear ache with 
consequent dullness of hearing, difficulty in breathing 
and a multitude of other evils, for any or all of ^^'hich 
Providence is blamed,, when the fault lies entirely in 
ourselves. It is well known to physicians that many 
people lose their eyesight or their hearing from causes 
that are easily avoidable and from diseases that are 
readily curable if taken in time. 

There is a strong prejudice against consulting special- 

i86 



THE CARE OF THE SENSE ORGANS 187 

ists, whose prices are thought to be beyond reason, 
and home remedies and quack nostrums are apphed in 
the hope of effecting a cure at little cost. It should be 
remembered, however, that the specialist treats hun- 
dreds of cases, and in ninety-nine out of a hundred he 
knows almost at once what the trouble is and what 
to do for it. His skill while costly at the time is likely 
to be a great deal cheaper in the long run than guess 
work and trusting to luck. Nature gives us these 
priceless organs, but she makes the gift but once and 
she cannot save us from the folly of our ignorance if 
we mistreat or destroy them. 

It is also known to those who have made a careful 
study of the subject that, barring unpreventable acci- 
dents, vision and hearing and the use of the other 
sense organs can be preserved far into old age, to 
eighty or ninety if life lasts that long, if proper care is 
observed. It is a fact that care is the most urgent in 
childhood and youth; that the ailments commonly 
attributed to old age are mostly due to infectious dis- 
eases that have left their mark, to excesses of indul- 
gence, to overwork, or to underfeeding. In short, what 
we sow in youth we reap in old age, but too frequently 
we are obliged to reap what others sowed for us before 
we were of an age to take care of ourselves. 

Up to about twenty years ago the health of school 
children in the public schools was left entirely to the 
wisdom or guesswork of the teachers. Epidemics were 
common and costly. The health of every child was in 



1 88 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

constant danger, and death frequently resulted from 
contact with disease. In addition to fatality and ill- 
ness, thousands of children were deprived of their edu- 
cation on account of disabilities which the science of 
medicine knew well how to remove; but neither teacher 
nor parents being able to diagnose the cases, no medi- 
cal or surgical aid was sought. Certain unfortunate 
children were thought to be dullards and their educa- 
tion given up, while epidemics were visitations of 
Providence and nothing could be done for them. 

In 1894, a series of epidemics in the city of Boston 
proved so destructive that the citizens became alarmed 
and remedial measures were called for. The board of 
education acted promptly, the city was divided into 
fifty districts, and fifty physicians were appointed to 
regularly inspect the schools. The result was most 
satisfactory. Every pupil in the city came regularly 
under the immediate observation of the doctor who 
was quick to discover symptoms of contagion and to 
prevent its spread, to detect physical disabilities and 
in most cases to remove them. 

A large percentage of the dullards were found to be 
suffering from some affliction of one or more of the 
sense organs. They were not lacking in sense but in 
senses. The disability removed, these children pro^•ed 
to be perfectly normal, in many cases even catching up 
with those of their own age who had gone on and left 
them to all appearances hopelessly stranded. Who 
can fneasure the value of such attention? 



THE CARE OF THE SENSE ORGANS 1 89 

A child is slightly near-sighted and misses much 
that normal eyes would see but he is not aware of his 
weakness, and neither teacher nor parents knowing 
anything about it, the child is considered dull-minded. 
The doctor applies his tests, discovers the trouble, or- 
ders glasses and lo, the little one is as bright as others 
of his age. Another is slightly deaf owing to some ob- 
struction of the eustachian tubes, but having no means 
of measuring his ability to hear with that of other chil- 
dren, he remains in ignorance of it. He is entreated, 
scolded, punished for not carrying out instructions 
that he did not hear, or for not paying attention when 
he should have done so. No one suspects the real 
cause until the doctor appears and tests his hearing 
and the child is saved from a world of embarrassment 
and backwardness. What a host of children have 
been saved from absolute stupidity by having adenoid 
growths removed from their nasal cavities! So much 
energy was required for breathing through these ob- 
structions that nothing was left for mental operations. 
How easy the detection, how simple the removal of 
the obstruction, to one who knows ! 

Boston having set the example, other cities followed 
until now most of the larger and many of the smaller 
ones have medical inspection in the public schools, 
and the custom is rapidly spreading because, in addition 
to the mercy of it, it has been discovered that it pays. 

It will probably be some time before such provision 
will be made at the public expense for all our country 



IQO THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

schools. While country children have all the rights of 
city children, the country is slow to adopt city methods. 
In the meantime the teacher must do what lies in his 
power, and he is not without expedients. Practically 
everything that is done toward the promotion of edu- 
cation is reported and described in the education jour- 
nals some of which every teacher is supposed to take 
and read. By means of these and by information 
which he may readily obtain from the local physician, 
he can himself become reasonably expert in detecting 
physical defects, and when this is done it is his duty to 
notify the parents and furnish such advice as he deems 
wise. 

It does not require extraordinary skill to detect the 
normality or abnormality of sight, hearing or breath- 
ing, but it does require a test. The trouble is that 
teachers make no efforts at discoveries in these essen- 
tials. Some even argue that they are employed only 
to give instruction, not to do the work of a doctor. 
This is but a poor excuse, wholly unworthy of anyone 
who has been entrusted with an obligation so sacred 
as that of the care of children. Where other means 
are not provided, every teacher should make such a 
test of the sight and hearing of all the pupils as the 
best equipment obtainable will permit, and he should 
constantly be on the lookout for any trouble in breath- 
ing or for any affliction of nose or throat. 

If charts are not obtainable for testing the eyes, the 
blackboard will answer. If a pupil with good light 



THE CARE OF THE SENSE ORGANS 191 

cannot readily read letters an inch high at a distance 
of twenty feet there is something wrong. If a child 
holds his book very close to his eyes, or farther away 
than the ordinary, it is likewise an indication of weak- 
ness. Headache and fatigue are often indicative of 
faulty vision. All these things should be observed 
and measures taken for their relief. But the teacher 
should in no case trust himself to make a final diagnosis 
of eye troubles, for that is the business of the occulist; 
he should never prescribe glasses or attempt to fit 
them, for that is the business of the optician; and 
finally he should not prescribe for diseases of any kind 
unless he is perfectly sure of their nature and of well 
established remedies. 

While he may not do any of these things he may do 
what is next best, he may prescribe rules of health and 
right ways of living. A well-fed and well-cared-for per- 
son seldom has any serious ailment no matter what 
the provocation. This is the most profound truth that 
any doctor knows and yet it is patent to everybody. 
Health is the greatest foe to disease that is known and 
health is the natural condition of the human body. 
All infections and chronic diseases and the long traifi 
of evils that follow in their wake are the result of some- 
one's ignorance or folly or wickedness. It may be due 
to the person himself, or it may be due to his parents or 
grand-parents or great grand-parents, but be the fault 
where it may, it lies somewhere in someone's wrong- 
doing. 



192 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

It should be emphasized in every way possible that 
the nearest approach to a clean bill of health consists 
in good morals and wholesome living, temperate habits, 
good food, pure air, and plenty of exercise. To para- 
phrase St. Paul, '^If there be any virtue or any praise, 
think on these things." 

Testing the Hearing. — The hearing may be tested 
roughly by placing a number of pupils in a row in the 
back part of the room and pronouncing words to them 
in a low tone, requiring the pupils to write the words 
just as they are pronounced, then allowing them to 
read what they have written. It will be found that 
the hearing of some will be much more acute than that 
of others, and a few perhaps will scarcely catch any of 
the words. A finer test can be made by carefully meas- 
uring the distance each one can hear the ticking of a 
watch. To make this test accurate the same condi- 
tions must prevail for all, that is there m.ust be the same 
degree of stillness and freedom from things that would 
divert the attention, absence of fatigue, embarrass- 
ment and the like. The watch must be kept in the 
same place for all; if laid on an article of furniture it 
can be heard farther than if held in the hand. It will 
be better to keep each child out of hearing until his 
turn comes, otherwise his attention may be strained 
to the point of fatigue before coming to the test. To 
prevent the play of imagination or ambition the con- 
ductor should have the watch open to the works and stop 
the ticking at intervals during a test, to make sure the 



THE CARE OF THE SENSE ORGANS 193 

pupil is really hearing it and not imagining a part of it. 
A record should be made and kept for each one tested. 

These tests will give the teacher a good working knowl- 
edge of the acuteness or dullness of the hearing of his 
pupils. Those whose sense is dull should have every 
advantage that position and care can provide, that is 
they should be allowed to sit near the front and the 
teacher should always make sure he is heard w^hen 
speaking to them or to the class. In addition to this, 
he should take such other precautions as each case 
seems to require, inform the parents and advise the 
services of a physician if that seems best. Very often 
dullness of hearing is caused by chronic colds, or by 
catarrhal or other nasal affections, and when these are 
removed the dullness disappears. 

Colds. — The remark that we do not catch cold, it 
catches us, is more true than witty. There are two ways 
in common practice of avoiding the disease known as 
"cold." The first is to protect one's self in every pos- 
sible wa}^ from exposure; draughts, dampness, night- 
air, chilly atmosphere are carefully shunned, while 
flannel clothing, heavy outdoor wraps and warm rooms 
are insisted upon. Eternal vigilance is the price of 
safety to those who practice this plan. The time comes 
when we are caught unawares, or some unforeseen ac- 
cident renders all our care unavailing, and the dreaded 
"cold" is contracted. Then follow days and weeks 
and perhaps months of suffering, of doctor's prescrip- 
tions and druggist's bills, until at last the cold having 
13 



194 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

run its course sullenly takes its departure and the 
patient recovers, or thinks he does. 

The second way is to keep the health and spirits up 
to such a degree that it is impossible to catch cold under 
an}^ ordinary circumstances. This is done by observ- 
ing the rules of health as suggested above, good food, 
good morals, pure air, plenty of outdoor exercise, sleep- 
ing in cool rooms or in the open air. Those who follow 
this plan have no fear of draughts or dampness or 
chilly atmosphere or cold sleeping rooms. The only 
things they fear are over-heated rooms and bad ventila- 
tion. These they dread worse than contagion, knowing 
that the strongest systems must sooner or later succumb 
to them. 

The Air Passages. — Teachers should ever be on the 
alert to detect difficulty in breathing. Even a slight 
affliction of this nature will hinder a child's progress 
and may lead to something worse. Mouth-breathers 
are almost certain to be suffering from adenoids or 
some other removable torture. The skill of the physi- 
cian should be sought without delay. 

The country or village teacher might very well ask 
a local physician to call at the school once a fortnight. 
This he will doubtless do without extra pay. A few 
minutes will suffice to show whether or not there are any 
signs of contagion. Before adopting this plan, in order to 
prevent unkind remarks it would be well to secure the 
consent of the school officials. All people of sense will 
at once recognize the wisdom and the mercy of it. 



THE CARE OF THE SENSE ORGANS 1 95 

The Throat. — Any teacher should be able to look 
into the throat of a child to detect inflammation, should 
there be any. A slight cold may produce temporary 
inflammation that is not of a serious nature, but it is 
best to be on the safe side. If there is any doubt, the 
child should be sent home with a note explaining the 
situation and saying if the danger appears to be over by 
morning the child may be returned to school. Whether 
or not the parents appreciate this kind of attention, it 
is for the good of the school as well as for the individual 
and ought not to be neglected. It is needless to say 
that when there is any sign of contagious disease the 
case should be isolated at once, no matter of what 
nature it may be. The only way to stamp out these 
enemies of the race is to prevent their spread. In most 
cases a doctor's certificate should be required before a 
patient is allowed to return. 

Habits of Cleanliness. — Everyone knows that clean- 
liness is one of the rules of health as well as of decency, 
but not everyone observes the rule. To know how to 
make a complete toilet of hands and face, with all that 
pertains thereto, is something of an art and must be 
taught to children and practiced until it becomes a 
habit. If parents do not attend to this important 
matter it must be learned at school, or it is likely never 
to be acquired at all. 

One should know something of the qualities and the 
effect of soaps upon the skin, and of water warm and 
cold; how to trim the finger nails and keep them clean; 



196 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

how to wash out the ears; how to brush the teeth and 
wash the mouth and throat; how to cleanse the nasal 
passages ; how to wash the eyes without injuring them ; 
how to wash and dress the hair; and how to keep the 
scalp clean and in a healthy condition. Obviously the 
teacher should set a worthy example in all these things. 

But example is not enough, many children do not 
understand the process. With them it is a question of 
how it is done and there is no need of their remaining 
in ignorance. If there is a trained nurse within reach 
she will gladly come at a convenient time and spend 
half a day in the school and give a few lessons on the 
preservation of the health paying particular attention 
to cleanliness. The doctor should also be asked to give 
a short lecture now and then on the subject of health, 
the prevention of disease, the care of the sense organs 
and kindred subjects. But if neither of these are 
available the teacher must do it. There is plenty of 
information obtainable to supplement his own knowl- 
edge, and he must not shirk either from acquiring the 
information or from imparting it to the children. 

The General Health. — With all this it must be 
borne in mind that the healthiness and workability 
of any special organ is largely dependent upon the 
general health of the whole body. When the digestion 
is at fault, or the system overworked, or the body en- 
feebled in any way, the nerves cannot endure the same 
amount of labor that they will when the body is in good 
condition. At such a time it is easy to injure the eyes 



THE CARE OF THE SENSE ORGANS 197 

or the throat or any other organ that is called into active 
service. Digestion particularly plays an important 
part. If that is at fault for any length of time the 
whole system sufTers from it. Here again the rules of 
health, as previously given, are the mainsta}'. 

Convalescents. — When anvone is recovering from an 
illness, the greatest care should be taken not to overtax 
the delicate structures that have been recently added 
or are being added for repairs. There is great danger 
just here. "The convalescent finds himself behind in his 
work, and his increasing strength tempts him to under- 
take more than is good for him. The strength of one re- 
covering from fever or any wasting illness is like that 
of a growing child, it calls for exercise; and it should 
have it, but not too much. Ambition to catch up often 
brings about permanent injur>^ Time used in getting 
strong is time saved. For a convalescent the first sign 
of fatigue is a warning to rest. 



CHAPTER XII 
PERCEPTION 

Perception is an act of the mind interpreting, or try- 
ing to interpret the meaning of sensation (see delini- 
tion under same topic in Part I) . The sense of smell is 
aroused and we look about to discover the cause of the 
sensation. If the odor is unfamiliar we pounce upon 
the first object that excites our suspicion and bring it 
closer to the olfactory nerve. If our guess is wrong, we 
go on searching. If the object when found is still 
strange, we bring other senses to bear upon it. We 
subject it to touch and perhaps to taste observing its 
various qualities. If we cannot identify it we try to 
think what it is like. We make use of memor}^ to call 
up images of other objects that are similar, and com- 
pare these images with the object noting in what re- 
spect each one agrees and in what respect it disagrees. 
We carefully store up in mem^ory all its qualities that 
we can discern, as size, shape, weight, color, taste, feel, 
tissue, so that we shall recognize it hereafter and so 
that we may describe it to others. 

This whole process is called perception although it 
involves other faculties as memory, imagination, judg- 
ment, and will. The predominating feature of the 

198 



PERCEPTION 199 

act above described was perceiving or finding out the 
meaning of the odor. The illustration also shows the 
value of perception. By it we gain whatever ideas we 
may have of the individual objects that are presented 
to the senses. 

Consciousness. — Before we can make an intelligent 
study of the faculties of the mind it is necessary to have 
an understanding of the term consciousness. Psychol- 
ogists tell us that consciousness is hard to define be- 
cause there is nothing else in all the world that is like 
it. In that respect it is like life. There is nothing with 
which we can compare life, for the same reason that 
there is nothing like it. We can perhaps best under- 
stand it by contrasting it with death which is its direct 
opposite. We can get an idea of what is meant by con- 
sciousness by contrasting it with unconsciousness, its 
opposite. A person is unconscious when asleep, or 
when knocked senseless by a blow on the head, when 
under the influence of an anesthetic, or when some 
severe pain or nausea causes "fainting." As when we 
are unconscious we know nothing of what is happening 
to ourselves or to anyone else, so in the opposite state 
we are aware of what is taking place about us. This 
gives us an idea of what is meant by consciousness. It 
is the state of knowing what is going on in the world 
around us or in us. 

Life, so far as we know, is necessary to consciousness, 
yet consciousness is not life. A person may be in an 
unconscious condition for many hours or even days and 



200 THE TRAIXTXG OF CHILDREN 

still be ali\'e. Trees and all plants have life but no 
consciousness, or if they have any at all it is in very- 
small measure, not to be compared to that which we 
possess. We should consider life a blank if it were de- 
prived of the quality of knowing. Yet a condition of 
unconsciousness is frequently desirable. Sleep without 
it would be robbed of most of its restfulness. The dis- 
covery a few decades ago of anesthesia by which pa- 
tients can be safely rendered unconscious of surgical 
operations was one of the greatest blessings ever con- 
tributed to suffering humanity. 

Consciousness, as the term is used by psychologists, 
is that condition of the mind which characterizes our 
waking hours, by which we are aware of the objects 
about us and of events as they transpire, and by means 
of which we study our own mental states. 

There is a mental condition somewhere between the 
two states described above called sub-consciousness. 
The mind is supposed never to be in a state of total 
inactivity. Tt goes on working whether we are conscious, 
of it or not, just as a clock goes on ticking whether 
we take notice of the fact or not. We can tell by paying 
attention that it is still running, and we can read the 
story of its activity by observing the position of the 
hands. So when attention is recalled from a lapse we 
are aware that the mind is at work and we can often 
tell what it has been doing in the interval b}' the im- 
pression left. Such is the case in dreams and in fits of 
abstraction. 



PERCEPTION 20I 

Value of Sub-consciousness. — This state of the mind 
is a valuable one. It is supposed to be ever on the 
lookout for our safety when we are otherwise en- 
gaged. It enables sleep-walkers to traverse dangerous 
places in safety and to perform operations that are 
m.arvelous to an onlooker. It cannot do this, however, 
in strange places, places with which the mind is not 
familiar in its waking hours. It is supposed that the 
acts of the body when in this state are not willed but 
are reflex. Probably a great deal more of our every 
da}^ life than we realize is carried on by our sub- 
conscious mind. Actions that are the result of invari- 
able habit, like the winding of one's watch, are attended 
to in this way. 

It is important to the teacher as well as to the 
ps}Thologist to understand the workings of the mind. 
The teacher has directive power in the habit-forming 
period, and knowing the power of repetition, can fore- 
stall bad habits by preventing the occurrence that leads 
to them, and can lay the foundations for stability of 
character by causing acts to be performed that will 
induce good habits. 

Perception differs from sensation in that it involves 
more mental activity. Sensation is merely the in- 
formation the mind has when a sense organ performs 
its function. Perception locates the sensation as to 
time and place and, as has been previously explained, 
interprets its nature and meaning by previous expe- 
rience. We can explain an act of perceiving but we can- 



202 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

not explain a sensation, because it is a single operation, 
cannot be separated into elements and needs no ex- 
planation. An infant may have a sensation of pain or 
discomfort and yet have no means of locating it or of 
determining its nature or meaning; all this must come 
by experience. 

To obtain clear perceptions there are several condi- 
tions that must be met. In the first place the sense 
organs must be in good working order. If they are 
injured or diseased or overstrained or excessively fa- 
tigued they will not give clear and well defined im- 
pressions. Second, they must be clear of obstructions; 
the eye may be filmy or irritated by some small sub- 
stance finding lodgment between the lid and the ball; 
the outer ear may be obstructed by dirt or wax, or the 
eustachian tube filled with mucous; the nose may be 
stopped up. Every one is familiar with these disturb- 
ances, which though for the most part of minor im- 
portance are not to be neglected. Third, if a sensory 
nerve is injured it is put out of commission just in 
porportion to the extent of the damage, and the sense 
organ with which it is connected can only act accord- 
ingly. Fourth, the general health and bodily condition 
is an important factor. Fifth, the mind must be free 
from worries and anxieties and in good working order, 
so that it may give undivided and forceful attention to 
the object to be perceived. 

.Percepts. — The product of an act of perceiving is 
called a percept. We perceive that it is raining, that 



PERCEPTION 203 

the air is cold, that the fire is out; these are percepts. 
The percept differs from a concept in that the former 
is a general idea of a class of objects while the latter is 
a single idea of a particular object or group of objects 
taken as one. We see an object at a distance and 
presently perceive that it is a man; we see a group of 
objects and perceive that it is a herd of cattle; it is a 
single act of the mind obtaining an idea although it 
may involve all the mental powers. The concept or 
general idea will be studied later. 

The Importance of Percepts. — The forming of per- 
cepts begins in early infancy and continues as long as 
conscious Hfe lasts. The infant perceives its mother's 
voice, and knowing the meaning of it, is content ; it per- 
ceives a strange voice, and not knowing its meaning, is 
alarmed. The perceptions of an infant are very dif- 
ferent from those of an adult. The child wants to 
know about things merely in respect to his immediate 
needs of eating, playing, or exercising his strength. 
Later he will want to know the names, the uses and the 
deeper meanings of things; he will learn to classify 
objects and to look out for future as well as present 
needs. It is in this way he becomes acquainted with 
the world around him, it is his education. 

What We Learn by Perception. — By perception we 
learn the qualities of things. By the sense of touch we 
learn whether an object is hard, soft, smooth, rough, 
sticky, liquid, solid, warm, cold, and something of its 
form, size, and texture; by sight we perceive it in re- 



204 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

spcct to its location, color, size or space occupied, and 
its relation in time, space and use to other objects; by 
the sense of taste whether it is sweet, sour, bitter, salt; 
by hearing, whether soft, hard, metallic, or resonant; 
by smell its odor. 

Transferred Perceptions. — We acquire the faculty of 
recognizing certain qualities by some other sense than 
the one used in learning those qualities originally. 
Thus we recognize the roughness or smoothness of the 
surface of an object by the sense of sight, although we 
could only learn these qualities in the first place by 
touch. We recognize that the stove is hot because it 
is red, having associated the redness with heat which is 
sensitive to touch only. By associating the previous 
experience of touch with light and shade we learn to 
perceive the forms of objects by the sense of sight alone 
although it is not unusual to be deceived in this. We 
can judge of the sound an object will produce when 
struck, by its appeafance to the sight. The taste of 
fruit and other foods is often anticipated by sight, 
though here again we are easily deceived. The sense 
of smell is not so readily transferable. 

Apperception. — When we perceive an object in the 
light of previous experience it is called apperception. 
In early childhood we are continually coming into con- 
tact with things that are new and hence with no previous 
experience that we can bring to bear upon them; but 
in adult life this seldom happens. Even after the be- 
ginning of school life, most perceiving is aided by past 



PERCEPTION 205 

experience. Thus if a child should be given a pencil 
different in some particulars from any he had previously 
seen he would at once begin judging it by what he al- 
ready knew of pencils. At the same time the qualities 
with which he is unfamiliar will afford him the deepest 
interest; he will want to know their meaning, the use 
to which they can be put and whether they make the 
pencil more valuable, or less so, than those that have 
not these qualities. 

This is the kind of perception that gives zest to life, 
finding objects with unknown ciualities or parts and 
determining these by means of the known. If the 
things themselves are interesting, that is in som.e close 
connection with our work or our play or our desires 
and ambitions, we shall be all the more eager to find 
out all about them. If an apple raiser should find a 
new kind of apple tree that gave promise of superior 
qualities it would be likely to absorb his attention 
and he might watch it with careful scrutiny for years 
in order to know all about it. On the other hand if 
this same man were shown a new kind of squash he 
might pass it by with indifference, it having no direct 
connection with his interests. 

This then gives us the key to the cultivation of per- 
ception; if we wish to keep the faculty on the alert for 
new discoveries and full of activity in finding out about 
them, we must ascertain what things are interesting 
and follow their lead. Every child of school age should 
have some impelling interest, and if he has not there is 



2o6 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

something the matter with him and his case should be 
studied until the trouble is located and a solution 
found for it. When a pupil's interest has once been 
discovered it will not be difficult to gain his attention 
to new things in connection with it and gradually to 
lead him on to a new set of interests if that is desirable. 

It requires a keen and penetrating perception on 
the part of the teacher to read the thoughts and mind- 
workings of his pupils. The easiest avenue of approach 
to their hearts will be through the things that are most 
vital to them. To be successful, a teacher must sacrifice 
to a large extent any outside interests that he may have 
and devote himself to those of his pupils. When he 
knows the principal subjects of their thoughts and con- 
versation he can select those that are most promising 
and after winning the pupils' confidence in his hand- 
ling of them he can guide their minds into almost any 
proper channel that is desired. 

The chief aims in training the perceptive faculties 
are Keenness of Observation, Accuracy of Inspection, 
Clear Definitions, and Wholesome Ambitions. These 
qualities are indispensable to extensive and clear-cut 
knowledge and to large usefulness. They are most 
easily acquired in early life and should command the 
strictest attention and care of the teacher. That their 
meaning may be understood we shall consider them in 
the order given above. 

Keenness of Observation. — Under this topic we ma}'^ 
first glance at the field. We find it a large one; there 



PERCEPTION 207 

are myriads of objects about us everywhere that are 
perceptible to the senses; all are in some way directly 
or remotely connected with our lives; some are familiar 
to us, others unknown. They are not placed in order 
but are scattered about in the most promiscuous confu- 
sion. To find out all about everything would require 
more time than is allotted to man on earth; for the 
limited years of school life, we shall have to select a 
comparatively few and learn what we can about them. 
Even then we shall not be able to confine ourselves to 
the things we select because we can never tell where 
they will lead to or what other things will become in- 
volved. Rather we shall have to confine ourselves to 
classes of objects that are safe and suitable to our pur- 
poses. 

The strongest proclivity of a growing mind is its 
desire for knowledge. Sometimes we think a child is 
indifferent to the acquisition of knowledge, but in this 
we are mistaken. He is only indifferent to the kind we 
offer or perhaps to the way in which we present it. The 
lessons that we present, in the way that we present 
them, do not add to his present happiness and hence do 
not appeal to him. At this point he must be our teacher, 
we must learn from him the things that contribute to 
his happiness and bring them to his attention in a way 
that will cause him to want to know more about them. 
The work of the school very properly looks to the fu- 
ture; but the child is concerned principally with the 
present and the problem of the teacher is not how to 



2o8 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

turn his mind away from present interests and fix them 
upon future prospects, but how to render these interests 
of value in his training for adult life. Strange to say, 
we are learning that the children are wiser than we in 
knowing what is for their good. We are finding out 
that the things that are most essential to their present 
happiness are the very things that contribute most to 
their future welfare. 

The teacher, then, taking his cue from the children 
themselves, will select those objects that are nearest 
and dearest to them and use them as the basis of his 
instruction. He will arrange the lessons in such a way 
that each one will contain something new and helpful 
in the everyday life of his pupils. He will see that 
they learn the names of objects correctly and that they 
master those qualities that are most significant to their 
age and advancement. In short he will train their 
perceptive powers in the things that are most conducive 
to their growth. 

Keenness of observation consists in the ready ability 
to pick out from the whole miscellaneous field of per- 
ceptible objects those that are connected with one's 
general or one's particular interests; for everyone should 
have both, that is he should be alert for any bit of knowl- 
edge that would be of general interest to humanity 
and at the same time always have on hand some special 
subject for investigation and be on the watch for any- 
thing that will throw light upon it. To acquire keen- 
ness one must have a deep and abiding interest in the 



PERCEPTION 209 

subject he is investigating, and it must be one that is 
fruitful of thought so that he will ever be on the scent 
of new information upon it. 

Such subjects are not difhcult to find. Nature is 
prodigal with materials that are practically inexhaust- 
ible and that will repay the student tenfold for all the 
labor he may put upon them. The study of any single 
branch of the animal, vegetable, or mineral kingdoms 
will afford a lifetime of research, will tax all the powers 
of the mind and all the general knowledge one can ob- 
tain, and still leave much to be discovered. 

Accuracy of Inspection. — Inaccuracy is not only the 
most common but the most fatal failing in perception. 
There are multitudes of people who seldom see or hear 
things exactly as they are. Their perceptions are biased 
by what they were expecting, or what some one else 
expected of them, by what they hoped to find, or by 
previous inaccurate description. These are some of 
the reasons why different people will perceive the same 
things so differently. 

When we are expecting to see certain qualities in an 
object we have those qualities in mind and are likely to 
think we see them when we do not. In such cases 
slight differences are almost certain to escape us unless 
we give the most careful inspection, which many will 
not do, especially if it is to their interest to see only 
what they were hoping for. 

Accuracy in seeing and hearing is so important that 
no pains should be spared in its cultivation in the pri- 
14 



2IO THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

mary and intermediate grades, and for this training an 
accurate and skillful teacher is invaluable. Costly 
mistakes are common, and fatal ones are entirely too 
frequent to permit any careless teaching in this partic- 
ular. After an accident entailing heavy losses has 
occurred it is poor consolation to hear the person re- 
sponsible bewailing the fact that he didn't see, or that 
he wasn't noticing, when a little care would have averted 
disaster. 

Clear Definitions. — Definition as used here means 
boundaries and markings in the sense that microsco- 
pists use the word when speaking of magnified views. 
When a picture or image shows all the details clearly 
and in proper proportions we say it is well defined. For 
accuracy in perception it is necessary that each detail 
of the object perceived shall appear in its place and in 
rightful proportion to the other details and to the 
whole. To secure this, the sense organs need to be 
accurate and in good working order; this is the first 
essential. The second is that one must be able to recog- 
nize the relative merits and values of the details so that 
the percept when complete will not be distorted. 
Thirdly, sufficient attention must be given to fi.x the 
whole and retain it for future use. 

Wholesome Ambitions. — It is safe to say that every- 
one has a desire to attain proficiency in something, and 
this something, whatever it is, is called his ambition. 
It is derived from his environment and heredity, from 
what he sees, hears, reads, feels, and thinks. It is ex- 



PERCEPTION 211 

ceedingly important in early life that the environment 
be wholesome, abundant, and of a character that will 
develop all the healthful powers of soul and body, and 
this environment must be looked after by parents and 
teachers because the young have not the judgment to 
select the helpful and avoid the hurtful. 

If a boy is to acquire wholesome ambitions he must 
be brought into daily contact with right conduct and 
worthy achievements and these must be in attractive 
form. Whether right is more attractive than wrong, 
or vice versa, depends very much upon the form in 
which it is presented. We may see sin in hideous form 
and it is repulsive, or we may see it in attractive form 
and be tempted to fall in with it. Those who make it 
their business to entice others into sin know well how 
to make sin appear attractive, and those whose business 
it is to guide the young into ways that are right should 
be equally enlightened and skillful. Suppose that a lad 
eight or ten years of age free from vice and evil thoughts 
should be thrown into the companionship of a boy 
about his own age or a little older who is bright and 
handsome, well dressed and prosperous looking, but 
who has contracted certain evil habits in speech and in 
conduct. Will not these vices seem attractive to the 
lad, and will not his amibitions be aroused to acquire 
them and to become equally proficient with his com- 
panion? Certainly they will, and that much more 
quickly than if they were presented in a less attractive 
wayo 



212 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

On the other hand if this same lad should have for his 
companion a boy equally attractive but free from vice, 
one who was ambitious to achieve proficiency in studies 
and in manly sports; would not these qualities appear 
quite as attractive as the vices of the first boy and 
would he not be just as likely to adopt them? There is 
little doubt about it. When a boy goes right or goes 
wrong, it is not a question of his tendencies but depends 
rather upon the things that are presented to him and 
the way in which they are presented. It too often hap- 
pens that righteousness is clothed in garments that are 
stiff and conventional and repelling while sin appears 
in a garb that is bright and easy and attractive. This 
power of evil to array itself in false colors is what has 
given to his satanic majesty his reputation for diabol- 
ical cunning and ingenuity. 

In addition to guarding against the above difficulties 
and others that may appear, the teacher should see to it 
that his pupils are furnished with abundant materials 
for the exercise of their perceptive powers and afford 
them daily opportunity for describing what they per- 
ceive both orally and in writing. They should have 
sufficient directions so that they will know in what 
fields to search and how to use their senses, and then 
skillful questioning of the results \\'ill bring out the 
main points and show the missing links. They must be 
taught to observe things exactly as they are and not 
as they thought they might be, or even as they hoped 
or believed they would be. Accuracy in perception 



TERCEPTION 213 

will be conducive to the same quality in other things, 
as truth and honesty, and will lay the foundation for 
an upright character and for a useful and happy life. 

The Co-ordination of Hand and Brain in Sense Per- 
ception. — The schools have too long overlooked or 
neglected the importance of training all the sense 
organs simultaneously, and the rural schools have been 
the greatest sinners in this respect. Eye-sight particu- 
larly is so frequently assisted by the hands that each 
must be trained to supplement the other. Deft ma- 
nipulation of materials is necessary to accurate per- 
ception in a multitude of ways, and children should be 
given many tasks that require hand work. Gathering 
raw materials, selecting, rejecting, classifying, arranging 
into groups, and making designs, all these require 
thought and are productive of skill in the use of both 
sight and touch. There is no phase of educational 
work that requires more thought and more painstaking 
care on the part of the teacher and none that yields 
more satisfying results than perception. 



CHAPTER XIII 
MEMORY 

We cannot cultivate one of the mental faculties to 
the total exclusion of the others. They are all used 
more or less in every mental operation, but not in the 
same degree in any one act nor to the same extent in 
the sum total of our acts. At one time we may be 
chiefly engaged in perceiving, at another in remember- 
ing, again in imagining, and still again in thinking out 
difhcult questions. A mental act is classified according 
to the faculty that is chiefly concerned. If it is perceiv- 
ing and the other faculties are used as aids, it is called 
an act of perception, and the product as before stated 
is a percept. If it consists chiefly in recalling some 
previous experience, it is called a memory act. 

Again, we do not use all the mental powers to the 
same extent at any one period in life. In youth we are 
chiefly employed in perceiving, gathering, analyzing, 
classifying, naming, and putting in order. In later life, 
we are mainly occupied, or should be, in using this 
material in thinking, planning, judging, and executing. 
This must be true in the very nature of things; we must 
gather materials before we can use them and when they 
have been gathered they should be used. Moreover, 

214 



MEMORY 215 

the faculties develop in accordance with this truth; the 
sense organs and the perceptive powers are bright and 
active in youth, while the thinking power is active in 
later life. It is necessary to know this so that we may 
train each faculty and bring it to its best while it is 
developing. 

While, as just stated, we cannot cultivate one faculty 
to the total exclusion of all or of any of the others, 
we can pay attention to one and neglect or ignore the 
others. The fact is, we should pay unceasing attention 
to all, giving to each its due proportion of thought and 
care in its time. Children can think, and they should 
be taught to think according to their powers; but that 
should not be their chief occupation. The first powers 
of the mind to unfold are those just treated, sensation 
and preception; and the one that immediately follows 
and is almost co-incident with the other two is that 
which forms the subject of this chapter. 

The power to retain in the mind and then to recall 
when needed, what we gather and what we learn, is 
absolutely necessary to our advancement. Without 
it we should never know anything except in the im- 
mediate present, should never be aware of anything 
unless it wxre immediately before the senses. By means 
of it we store up as in a treasure house innumerable 
.perceptions, and recall and think about them when 
we choose. 

The physiological basis for memory is the brain it- 
self; there is no memory nerve like those of the sense 



2l6 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

organs, neither is there supposed to be any particular 
portion of the brain set aside for remembering as there 
is for the different sensations; the whole brain is sup- 
posed to be a memory organ. It is probable however 
that different groups of brain cells are employed in 
remembering different things; thus when we recall 
an object of sight, it is supposed that the same group 
of cells that recorded the original sensation are active 
in bringing the image again before the mind. This 
activity is similar to, but not exactly the same, as that 
in the original instance, else we should not know the 
image from the real object as presented to the senses. 
The cells that record sounds would likewise be excited 
when we recall something we have heard. 

The power of thought is chiefiy located in the frontal 
lobe of the cerebrum just back of and a little above 
the eyebrows; from this portion there are tracts of 
connecting lines to all parts, so that the thinking power 
may always be in communication with v.hatever takes 
place in the brain. When we wish to recall something 
that is vague the mind searches along these connecting 
lines until the right one is found, the sensations are 
brought into mental view, the experience is located 
as to time and place, the details or some of them are 
made to serve their office, and the whole is considered 
to our satisfaction; this is a complete act of memor}'. 

Memory is called the representative power because 
it brings to the mind again what had been previously 
presented; it is also known as the retentive faculty 



MEMORY 217 

for the reason that it retains what is committed to it. 
What becomes of an idea after it has been committed 
to the memory until it is again recalled has often been a 
subject for speculation. Where is all our knowledge 
when not im.m.ediately before the mind? We are ac- 
customxcd to think of the mind as a storehouse where 
all our knowledge is sorted out and put in place so that 
we can find it when we need it, and when we leave an 
idea for a long tim.e we are likely to have difhculty in 
locating it. This does very well for an illustration, but 
it must not be supposed that there is any such actual 
mental storehouse. Some think the mind is more like 
a musical instrument which is ready at any time to 
make real the music that is in the composer's mind, 
and upon which a player ma}^ produce with more or less 
accuracy anything he has previously played. 

It will not be profitable here for us to enter upon an 
argum^ent as to the respective merits of either of these 
views ; they are only illustrations at the best and we may 
use them in any way that will aid us in understanding 
how the mind operates in remembering. 

The Work of the Memory. — It is worth our while 
however to consider the enormous part the memory 
plays in our education and in all the work of our lives. 
Every bit of knowledge we acquire is committed to its 
care; if it fails us we are helpless; if it is at fault we go 
wrong and must find out over again, at loss of time and 
expense, what we should have remembered. How often 
we regret our lack of memory! If we did not forget so 



2l8 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

many things we ought to have retained, how much more 
valuable our services would be. Let us take a look at 
the work the memory has to do and then we shall see 
how important is the matter of its cultivation. 

First, we must remember thoughts. All the thoughts 
that we think ourselves, and those that we hear and 
read, year in and year out, must be retained for use or 
they will profit us little. The main object of books, 
magazines, sermons, lectures, is to transmit thoughts 
that will be useful to us if we store them up and apply 
them. 

Second, think of the number of facts we must re- 
member. A large part of the work of the school is de- 
voted to the accumulation of facts. History, geography, 
arithmetic, grammar, physiology are examples. If all 
the facts that are expected to be learned in the first 
eight years of school were put in order, what an array 
they would make. Besides, there are multitudes out- 
side of school that must be acquired as we go along. 

Third, if we are to accomplish anything and-be com- 
fortable about it, we must perforce store up a stock of 
words and their meanings and shades of meaning run- 
ning into the thousands, and they must be so thoroughly 
committed that they Mdll come upon our tongue with- 
out an instant's hesitation or effort, otherwise we shall 
constantly be put to embarrassment and be at a loss 
to express our thoughts. A large and well assorted 
\()cabulary thoroughly committed to memory is a 
fortune in itself. 



MEMORY 219 

Fourth, we must remember the names of our friends 
and of all the people we know, their faces, their voices 
and appearance; events and when and where they hap- 
pened; places, pictures, songs, sounds, sights, tastes, 
odors, feelings, emotions, — bxit why try to enumerate? 
The truth is, we must remember everything that is to 
play any part in our lives. What we forget does us 
little good. 

The criticism is frequently heard that there is too 
much memorizing and too little real thinking in the 
schools. The criticism may be well founded in many 
cases, but no thoughtful person has intimiated that the 
memory should be neglected or that too much attention 
has been given to its cultivation. It is only the methods 
too commonly in vogue that have been condemned. 
The memory should be cultivated to its utmost capac- 
ity, and the best time to attend to it is in youth. 

Memory is very active in childhood, develops rapidly, 
and is said to come to maturity at about the age of 
sixteen. After that it can be trained to many uses 
not hitherto acquired, but it cannot be enlarged in 
its capacity, it has attained its growth. 

There is little doubt that some persons have better 
faculties for retaining than others, but the only way 
to determine what a child's capacity will be is by giv- 
ing it all the training it is capable of taking; if any one's 
capacity is below the average, that is all the more reason 
for bringing it to its best so that he will not be un- 
necessarily handicapped; if it is above the average, 



220 THE TRAINING OF CHILDRI'N 

of one is "gifted" in the power to remember, it should 
likewise be cultivated so that the gift may result in the 
greatest possible usefulness. Ever}^ great man or 
woman has had a good memor}^, either great in its 
capacity or in its cultivation and control. 

The Cultivation of the Memory. — The question then 
as to how this important faculty shall be cultivated 
is worthy of our deepest thought. Every child of 
school age should have the best possible means available 
for bringing his powers to their full strength. This is 
what the schools are for. The mind is the greatest 
possession any human being can have; that it is the 
better for cultivation is beyond question, and that the 
greatest progress can be made in early life is also well 
known. For these reasons the character of the in- 
struction given to children and the methods of im- 
parting it should be most carefully considered. 

The first thing to observe is that the memor}^ should 
not be forced. If we overtax it we shall do it harm. 
If any one will take the pains to review his own ex- 
perience he will be surprised to find how many things 
he has forgotten that he tried to remember, and he will 
be equally surprised to discover that most of what he 
remembers has been retained without conscious eft'ort. 
How many times we have tasked ourselves to "get" 
lessons that were assigned, only to find in a few weeks 
or months that they have slipped away from us, while 
some incident that came up voluntarily and attracted 
our attention and which we took no pains whatever to 



MEMORY 221 

remember stays with us and always will. In fact, for 
the most part, it is the association of these interesting, 
incidents that enables us to retain the hard lessons that 
we do remember. 

The secret of memory is to find things of sufficient 
interest to attract and hold the attention ; if this is done 
no thought need be given to its retention, that will take 
care of itself. Nothing can be learned without attention, 
and this will not be given unless some thread of inter- 
est can be found. It is better not to tell pupils to re- 
member this or that, but to tell them to see if they can 
find something that is interesting, that is connected 
with what they know or are anxious to learn. If a 
hundred pupils are asked what their chief activity in 
getting their lessons consists in, most of them will 
answer at once that it consists in trying to remember 
them, and they will add in the same breath that they 
cannot do it. Such work is not only profitless, it is 
detrimental to real progress. 

This does not mean that memory is to be kept en- 
tirely in the background. Every pupil" should be in- 
formed of its value, its need for cultivation, and how to 
go about it. Like every other growing thing the mem- 
ory craves exercise and its chief requirepient is material 
properly selected and in rightful quantities. In select- 
ing and presenting the material the teacher plays a 
prominent part. 

Materials for the Cultivation of the Memory. — It has 
been stated that children are not particularly anxious 



222 THE TRAINING 0¥ CHILDREN 

about their future welfare; they have not 3^et come to 
the laying-by period. They are interested just now in 
the things that pertain to their little everyday child's 
world, and it is these same things properly applied that 
will best administer to their future good. Not only 
must the materials used be appropriate to the learner's 
age and habits of life but they must be so presented 
that, as some one has expressed it, a unit of effort will 
bring a unit of reward; that is, whatever new knowledge 
a child acquires must be of. such a nature that he can 
appreciate it, connect it with what he already knows 
and use it. What materials has the teacher that will 
be thus suitable for his work? 

In the first place there are the books. The use of 
books may be new to the beginners but that is no great 
disadvantage, it should rather be an advantage. Chil- 
dren like new things and if the books are what they 
should be there need be no serious difficulty in arousing 
their interest in them. School books are made in these 
days with a special view to the needs and interests of 
children and it only requires skillful handling to make 
them exceedingly valuable for their training. 

Let us examine a First Reader. Its object is that 
the child who i^ses it may learn to read, and we might 
suppose that words and sentences would be all that is 
necessary. We find words and sentences there to be 
sure, and they are printed large so that the eyes need 
not be strained; but we find also that the lessons are 
about things which are familiar and closely connected 



MEMORY 223 

with the children's lives. They refer to the home, the 
fields, the woods. There are beautiful pictures of 
people, of familiar animals, of birds and flowers and 
insects, of houses and playthings. These arouse the 
child's interest and secure his attention; he wants to 
know what they are all about, and the words and sen- 
tences furnish the information. His learning proceeds 
in the most delightful manner. Why should he not 
want to learn to read when by that means he can find 
out so many interesting things? 

The more advanced readers are likewise full of things 
adapted to the learner's needs. There should be no 
trouble in teaching the children to read if we furnish 
enough of such interesting matter. If we go over the 
same matter time and again for want of new, it will 
soon grow stale and scarcely any progress will be made. 
We need fresh material every day and for every lesson. 
We shall often refer to preceding lessons but we shall 
always want something to add that will be different 
from anything we have had before. When the book is 
finished we lay it aside, we do not want to review it. 
A new book, not much more difficult and using mostly 
the same words, but with fresh material and a different 
set of stories, this will keep up the interest and we shall 
make more rapid progress than ever. 

This is learning to read, but is it training the memory? 
It is just what the memory needs, new and fresh mate- 
rial told in a way that the mind can grasp, aided by 
pictures that are closely connected with the objects 



224 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

themselves so that they appeal directly to the sight and 
touch and hearing. Who forgets knowledge thus pre- 
sented? If it is worth remembering it is seldom lost. 

What about number work? Can it be made to con- 
nect with the children's lives and apply to their needs? 
The first step in arithmetic is learning to count. A child 
wants to know how many pennies or marbles he has, 
how many chickens are in the coop, how many birds 
in the nest. There are so many things he will want to 
count that he will hardly rest until he has mastered the 
art. He will count his pennies and want to know how 
many he will have left if he buys an orange at five cents. 
When he learns from actual experience that five from 
twelve leaves seven he will not soon forget it. He will 
learn all he needs to know about the art of computing, 
by the things around him and that are a part of his 
everyday life. Any computations that are not thus 
connected should wait until he grows up to them. Ad- 
dition and multiplication tables have no place in this 
kind of teaching. 

Geography is a delightful mem.ory study when 
rightly presented. Too often it is made too much a 
matter of memory and not enough a subject for thought; 
it is set as a task to be committed, is not connected 
with present things and is consequently soon forgotten. 
Every fact that is presented in geography should be 
coupled with something familiar, and if any fact can- 
not be, it should be left until it can. For example, 
oranges come from, let us say, California; why should 



MEMORY 225 

they be raised there when they are not here? This 
leads to the climate of California and the things that 
are adapted to that climate. Then the question natu- 
rally arises why should it be w^arm all the year in some 
countries when it is not so here? This will lead to 
mathematical geography and we shall have to explain 
about the shape and movements of the earth and about 
oceans, currents, winds, and everything that can be 
understood. 

Histor}^ is classed with the memory studies and needs 
the same care as geography to keep it from becoming 
a task without present meaning and forgotten almost as 
fast as it is learned. Yet there is no more interesting 
study to children if it is presented in a form suitable to 
their understanding. True stories of real people whose 
pictures can be shown, like Washington, Lincoln, and 
Franklin, will be full of interest as will the discoveries, 
inventions, and writings, with something of the hves 
of those concerned. The progress of civilization from 
primeval dsiys to the present, comparing the industries 
and the ways and means of doing things in the past 
with the same in the present, is ever a fascinating study 
and is closely connected with other phases of history. 

Aside from the text-books, there is literature abound- 
ing in information that is both entertaining and profit- 
able, books, magazines, newspapers. A well selected 
juvenile Hbrary is so valuable for children and so easily 
obtained that the school which does Aot supply itself 
with one is criminally negligent. There are books, 

15 



226 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

and plenty of them and very cheap, that are adapted 
to the several grades from the first upward and should 
be read by the children; there are still others that the 
teacher should read for his own enlightenment and for 
the enrichment of his knowledge that his mind may be 
like a nev^er failing fountain and not like a dried up well. 

Lastly, there is the whole world of nature just at our 
doors. There is no more interesting study and none 
better adapted to the development of growing minds 
than the study of nature, animate and inanimate. 
Many teachers are afraid to even make an attempt to 
give lessons from nature, because they know so little 
about it themselves. Like the parents previously re- 
ferred to, they have lived in the midst of birds and 
flowers and insects without even learning the names of 
more than a few of them; they therefore do not feel 
competent to give instruction. Definite courses should 
be mapped out, text books furnished, and instruction 
required by law in all schools; until such is done this 
subject is likely to be neglected. 

The Law of Memory. — There is one great law of 
memory that underlies all others and that is the law 
of association. No event ever happens by itself, apart 
from all other events. All the happenings of our lives 
are connected and inter-connected so that they are 
like a network every part of which is joined to every 
other part directly or remotely. Any one of a hundred 
different objects will call up some past event, and if 
there were no connecting link between it and the pres- 



MEMORY 227 

ent it could not be called up. There is no way of re- 
calling any past experience except by being reminded 
of it by something that is in the mind now and that 
is or has been associated with it. 

There are so many different ways of associating 
events one with another that they cannot all be men- 
tioned here. We shall need to consider a few of the 
more important ones because they may be used as aids 
in fixing things that we wish to remember. Although 
we can control them to a certain extent and make use 
of them, they are not man-made but are a part of the 
general order of things; for this reason they are often 
called the secondary laws. 

First in order is the law of time. Things that happen 
at the same time, or about the same time, are associated 
in the mind, and when one is recalled others are re- 
called with it. Thus, supposing there was a wedding 
in the family and a meteor should fall in a nearby field 
causing a great commotion. Every one present could 
never thereafter be reminded of the one event without 
recalling the other, although they were in no way re- 
lated except in the matter of time. In fact, this link 
would be so strong that no witness of the double event 
could ever hear of a wedding without thinking of the 
meteor, or of a meteor without thinking of the wed- 
ding. 

Great events are landmarks to the memory by which 
we locate a number of smaller happenings. A great 
storm, an unusual rise of the river, a political upheaval, 



2 28 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

a death or birth in the family, a trip to Europe, — any- 
thing that in itself cannot be forgotten helps to keep a 
multitude of minor matters from being lost or mis- 
placed. It is well to have these landmarks and to make 
them serve us in as many things as we wish to remember. 

The Importance of Sequence. — When things happen 
consecutively they are remembered on that account. 
We can often recall an event by what happened just 
before or just after it. Some persons are apt at arrang- 
ing things in the order of their sequence, and when they 
wish to recall a matter they will think what came first, 
what second, and so on until they come to the place 
of the thing sought when lo, it pops into the mind, 
simply because its hiding place was found. 

The Law of Similarity. — Next to the law of time 
comes that of similarity. Objects that resemble each 
other in sight, sound, touch, taste, or smell, naturally 
group themselves in the mind and when one is present 
the other is recalled. The mind is quick to note these 
resemblances and the memory is often refreshed by 
them. We catch a glimpse of a passing stranger and 
are reminded of a friend we have not seen or scarcely 
thought of for years perhaps, and the recollection often 
brings with it a train of other matters that are good to 
think about . Suppose the person recalled by the stranger 
was a former schoolmate in some distant institution; 
we recall other schoolmates, teachers, the grounds and 
the buildings, the lessons we learned, the lectures we 
heard, the pleasant times we had, our defeats, our 



MEMORY 229 

triumphs, our joys; our life seems brighter and better 
because of the reminiscence, all brought about by a 
glimpse of a strange face. 

It should be kept in mind that past events do not 
re-present themselves without a cause, something must 
bring them up. When we ask ourselves, "what made 
me think of that?" it is a recognition o£ this fact. 
The points of similarity in objects that otherwise differ 
greatly are sometimes so subtle that it is often difficult 
to locate them, nevertheless they are there. Some- 
thing, we can scarcely tell what, reminds us of something 
else and we proceed to revivify the matter thus brought 
to the attention and make whatever use of it we choose. 
It is a valuable power and should be cultivated. The 
teacher may from time to time suggest a subject and 
inquire of the class what ideas are associated with it. 
Gradually they will learn to consciously associate more 
firmly related ideas. 

This law of similarity extends to ideas; we recall 
former thoughts by the similarity of one expressed in 
our presence, and by comparing the two we get more 
comprehensive ideas. 

The Law of Contrast. — Certain things are associated 
in the mind because of their differences. The incon- 
gruity of opposite qualities in objects of the same class 
gives us momentary pleasure, as to see a dwarf beside 
a giant, a veiy tall man with a very short wife, or vice 
versa. When we see some striking characteristic in 
man or object it often recalls the opposite extreme in 



230 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

something we have previously kno^^^l, and we enjoy 
making the contrast. 

The Law of Classification. — Things that belong in the 
same classification are associated in the mind and are 
most easily recalled by that association. If anyone 
who had seen Jumbo should hear of a very large ele- 
phant he would at once recall the time when he had 
experienced the pleasure of looking upon that famous 
animal. We classify objects according to their leading 
characteristics, putting those that have the same qual- 
ities in about the same degree together. In this way we 
make a mental class of great statesmen, great generals, 
poets and men and things of every sort; if one of the 
class is before the mind, the others- are thought of; 
if Milton's name should be mentioned, one would think 
of Homer and Virgil and any others who in his opinion 
belonged in the class with Milton. Many things are 
remembered in this way and many more might be if 
more people were expert classifiers. To classify in this 
way a large number of people and things, requires the 
acquisition of knowledge and the power to compare 
the merits of one with the merits of another and to 
judge in what class each belongs. Here again, the 
teacher may assist the students by naming individuals, 
animals, or objects and asking the pupils to classify them 
according to the varieties with which they are familiar. 

The Law of Special Interest. — To have a special in- 
terest in certain things is a great aid to memory for 
the reason that we pay closer and more prolonged at- 



MEMORY 231 

tention to them. We acquire knowledge most rapidly 
when we are deeply interested, and we retain it in the 
same proportion. When one has chosen a certain line 
of study because of his liking for it, he goes into it with 
spirit and energ>% he takes in details, he studies pro- 
portions, he investigates sidelights, he views it from 
different points of advantage, he keeps at it until it is 
stamped and impressed upon his mind in such a way 
that he cannot forget it. 

It seems unnecessary to furnish illustrations of this 
important principle; it is so plain and obvious, so easily 
discovered for oneself, it can be used in such a multitude 
of ways that no one can plead ignorance of it. Yet many 
people, perhaps the majority, never have any special 
interest worthy of the name. They go through life 
dabbling at this and that, and never settle down to an 
abiding interest in some special line of activity with a 
determination to master it. This special interest is 
often seen in children in the way of making collections. 
This should be encouraged and directed until some- 
thing definite and worth while has been accomplished. 
The value of a real live interest in one's occupation 
is showTi by the following illustration : Two men start 
out in the same occupation, let us say farming; one 
determines to master the subject so far as lies in his 
power, the other is content to plod along, trusting 
mainly to luck. In a few years the first is a shining 
light in the community, is looked up to as an authority 
and as a man of intelligence, is bright, happy and pros- 



232 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

pcrous and is well-informed on a thousand things out- 
side of his calling. His study of farming has made him 
alert for other things, and his education and mental 
training have gone on almost as rapidly as though he 
were in college. He is delighted with his occupation 
finding it increasingly interesting and profitable. The 
other barely makes a li^'ing, looks upon his work as 
drudgery, and blames his lack of success upon poor 
soil, unfavorable weather, ravages of insects, or the 
prevalence of weeds. He is unhappy and embittered 
towards the world, and his opinions, if he has an}-, are 
merely smiled at as of little consequence. 

Is it possible that the mere matter of taking interest 
could result in so wide a difference in two young men 
of otherwise equal abihty and opportunity? There is 
not the least doubt of it. It has been demonstrated 
thousands of times. Either way it is taken, the result 
is practically inevitable. 

But if one must follow a certain calling and has no in- 
terest in it, what can he do about it? Can the feehng be 
acquired? As a rule, interest in a subject is not a gift 
of the gods laid down at the feet of favored individuals; 
it is a matter of training and determination. Any 
subject that has complications is interesting if we will 
set ourselves to study it. As its mysteries begin to un- 
fold it becomes more and more interesting, more and 
more fruitful of research until, by and by, we shall need 
no other incentive than the satisfaction derived from 
its investigation. 



MEMORY 233 

The Law of Repetition. — Perhaps the simplest of all 
rules for remembering is to repeat a thing over and over 
again until it is fixed in the mind, for a time at least. 
It is in this way declamations, quotations, memory 
gems, and the like are committed to memory. It is what 
the children call "learning by heart." Repetition is to 
be commended in many instances. Whenever a first 
impression fails to fix a matter that is desirable to re- 
tain, repetition must be resorted to. It is the natural 
thing to do; the mind takes pleasure in going over 
many things again and again until the details are 
mastered and all points securely fixed in their respective 
places. 

There is danger in too much repetition from the fact 
that students will fall into the habit of reading care- 
lessly with the idea that they will have another chance 
at it. It is better in getting lessons to teach pupils 
to go over them once with great care, with no expecta- 
tion and no opportunity of repeating. Most of our 
reading in adult life can only be done once, and the habit 
of doing it so thoroughly that no second reading is 
necessary will be very valuable. If a second reading 
is allowed, it should not be for the mere sake of repeating 
but with some distinct purpose in view different from 
that in the first instance. This will create interest and 
give substance for study that will be more beneficial 
than mere memorizing, and at the same time it will be 
more likely to stick. 

The Law of Arbitrary Association. — This means that 



234 'J'HE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

we may arrange matters that we wish to remember 
in any way that will suit our own convenience. Much 
data can be associated with important events connected 
with our own lives, and we can as well make use of 
great events in the lives of our friends. If we say a 
certain matter occurred so many days prior to, or so 
many days after, some event that cannot w^ell be for- 
gotten, it will be an aid to the memor}^ National 
events can be treated in this manner. Historical dates 
give trouble to many students of history. The time of a 
few great events should be firmly fixed and less im- 
portant matters clustered about them. Almost any 
systematic arrangement is better than none. Most 
people remember the number of days in the months 
by the little rhyme beginning, "Thirty days hath Sep- 
tember." Years ago parts of the geography were 
chanted and thus fixed in the memor}^ for life. 

The Law of Feeling. — Emotion has a great deal to do 
with remembering. Many of the most lasting impres- 
sions are those that were caused by events which were 
accompanied by deep feelings. The most common of 
these feelings are joy, surprise, fear or alarm, sympathy, 
pathos, religious fervor, pity, love, hate, disgust, in- 
dignation, grief, sorrow. Speakers often take ad- 
vantage of this psychological feature to make their 
points stick by illustrating them with stories that ap- 
peal to the emotions. A good story has a two-fold use 
in this connection, it secures the attention and plays 
upon the feelings, sympathy, pity, humor, indignation, 



MEMORY 235 

whatever the speaker desires, and if the story is closely 
enough connected with the "point" to be made, the 
desired result is effected. 

Children's feelings are easily aroused and it is right 
to secure their attention and deepen impressions by 
appealing to them. It is essential however to exercise 
care and judgment that it be not overdone and that 
appeal be made only to the better class of emotions. 
Those of joy, affection, reverence, may be called into 
action frequently; sympathy, pity, surprise, occasion- 
ally. It is seldom safe to work upon fear or hate ; these 
should be avoided rather than called into action. 

Physical and Mental Condition. — The same law that 
holds in the cultivation of every other power is ap- 
plicable to memory, that is, body and mind must be 
in good condition to achieve the best results. The 
principle of a sound mind in a sound body is old but it 
is far from being worn out ; instead of losing its signif- 
icance it is coming into wider recognition and more 
diligent practice. 

For the cultivation of any mental faculty, it is not 
only necessary that the mind should be free from de- 
pression caused by physical infirmity but, as previously 
stated, it must be free from worry, fright, anxiety, and 
from any and all diverting causes. No lasting im- 
pression can be made when the mind is preoccupied 
in any way or from any cause. It must be free to give 
attention, to investigate, to consider, to reflect. When- 
ever physical and mental conditions are not right for 



236 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

learning, it is the first duty of the teacher to take steps 
to make them right. 

Recapitulation. — For the purpose of better compre- 
hension, let us sum up the suggestions made for the 
cultivation of the memory. We find they are as fol- 
lows : 

1. The memory should not be forced. 

2. The secret of remembering is interest and at- 
tention. 

3. The materials for the cultivation of the memory 
at the command of the teacher are the text-books in- 
cluding pictures, maps, chares, etc.; literature, and the 
world of nature and art about us. 

4. The laws of memory are as follows: 

1. The great underlying law of association. 

2. The secondary laws, including: 

(i) Time 

(2) Similarity 

(3) Contrast 

(4) Classification 

(5) Special interest 

(6) Repetition 

(7) Arbitrary association 

(8) Feeling 

5. The physical and mental condition of the indi- 
vidual should be duly taken into account. 



CHAPTER XIV 
IMAGINATION 

Imagination is the faculty that enables the mind to 
construct images of things that are not present to the 
senses (see definition in Part I). There are two kinds 
of images. The first are those that are before the mind 
when we recall anything of which we have previously 
been conscious, as the faces of our friends who are 
absent, the church we last attended, or a picture or a 
book that we have recently seen; these are memor}' 
images. The other kind consists in mental pictures of 
things that have not been presented to the senses but 
are the creations of the fancy, such as the mental 
picture of heaven whatever it may be, of a friend we 
have never seen, of a house we are proposing to build, 
of how things will be in twenty or fifty or one hundred 
years from now ; these are the kind referred to when we 
speak of the products of the imagination. 

A memory image is a more or less correct repro- 
duction of what we have previously seen, heard, felt, 
tasted, smelled, or thought. When we recall what 
honey tastes like we have a mental image of that taste ; 
when we recall the fragrance of a rose we have an image 
of its odor; we have an image of the feel of velvet, of 

237 



238 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the temperature of ice, of the sound of a violin. There 
is no original thinking required for these images, they 
simply appear whenever the object that produced them 
is recalled to the mind. 

To produce original images requires mental effort, 
sometimes so little that it is scarcely noticeable, at 
other times calling forth all the power of thought at 
our command. All the progress of the world is due in 
large measure to this power of the mind to create forms 
that otherwise have no existence. The mind cannot 
create new material, it can only conceive new forms, 
new ideas, new ways of doing things. From this it is 
plain that the gift of the imagination is a great one. 

The imagination begins its development very early 
in life. Memory images probably come first — a child 
has an image of its mother's face and voice. The power 
of imagery, distinct from memory, is seen in its simpler 
forms in the play of children; a little girl imagines her 
doll is sick and wants to administer medicine, or it is 
naughty and must be punished; the small bo}' has his 
stick horses which he puts through all the maneuvers 
he has learned from his elders in the management of 
real horses, and in scores of other ways the imagination 
is manifest in the young. 

Its Practical Uses. — It would be impossible to enu- 
merate all the everyday uses in which the imagination 
serves mankind; it plays its part in every walk of life. 
A workman will take a rough piece of wood and make 
an ax handle that is almost the exact image of the type 



IMAGINATION 239 

he carries in his mind. If he were asked to make one 
different from any he had ever seen, and were given 
the specifications, he would form an image of the kind- 
desired and make it according to that image. A bright 
housewife will think of a score of conveniences and im- 
provements that w^ould never occur to one devoid of 
imagination. An employee who can improvise a tool 
when one is wanting, or can think of a way to mend a 
broken shaft, is much more valuable than one who can 
only do what he has seen done. 

The farmer will find no factor more productive than 
an active, practical imagination. It will tell him what 
to do with his fields, how to enrich his soil, the kind 
of crops and stock that will be most profitable. The 
mechanic can never become a master workman with- 
out it ; the clerk cannot rise unless he can see a thousand 
things with his mind that his eyes do not take in. Speak- 
ers, writers, actors, inventors, all need vivid imagina- 
tions. 

It will occur to every thinking person that some have 
this gift in far greater degree than others. It appears 
to be very unevenly distributed and to be the cause, 
more than any other faculty, of its possessor rising 
into prominence, or, lacking it, remaining in obscurity. 
It may be that this great divergence, which is so notice- 
able, is due more to training than to natural endow- 
ment. It is a part of the mind that requires a great deal 
of material for its growth and many homes are barren 
of the kind of food required. Another reason that 



240 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

doubtless accounts for much mediocrity, lies in the fact 
that the imagination has never been in good repute 
. in the minds of many otherwise excellent people. They 
cherish the idea that it is impractical, foolish, danger- 
ous, and try to squelch any indications they see of it in 
their children. Ignorance of the real nature of one of 
God's most gracious gifts is the only excuse that can 
be offered for such wickedness. 

Just how much anyone owes to environment and how 
much to heredity cannot be determined, but we can 
see all about us, in the lives of the people we know, the 
effect of the former. Everything we see and hear and 
experience leaves its impress upon our minds, becomes 
the subject of our thoughts and our expressions, and 
very largely determines the boundary lines of our 
activities. A child, in particular, is bound to think in 
terms of his surroundings, the things that make up his 
life; he has no other material. The larger and more 
diversified one's environment the more spontaneous, 
free and untrammeled will be one's thoughts and imagi- 
nations, the more is one likel}^ to discover the particular 
sphere in which his soul finds the greatest freedom and 
delight. 

Better surroundings can hardly be conceived than 
that afforded by country life in a good neighborhood, 
that is, one that is provided with schools and churches, 
and with literary and social advantages. Life on the 
farm when it is rightly proportioned between work and 
play, between muscular toil and mental exercise and 



IMAGINATION 24 1 

diversion, is the ideal life. It accounts for the oft 
quoted fact that so many of the leaders in the world's 
work were brought up on the farm. With all nature 
in constant evidence, with the great diversity of inter- 
ests afforded, farming as carried on in America is the 
one occupation freest from the degenerating influences 
of in-breeding. The farmer's son has every opportu- 
nity to see and to study other callings and is free to 
choose any he may prefer, and his training on the farm 
is the best foundation he could have for it. On the 
other hand, there are so many attractions about farming 
that many who were not so brought up become enam- 
ored of it and the farm itself offers them the best chance 
for a long and happy life. 

Now, heredity is most likely to find the encourage- 
ment it needs, and to come into its own, where the en- 
vironment is free and untrammeled as above described. 
One's hereditary tendencies are not confined to one's 
immediate parents, but may hark back to grandparents 
or great grandparents or even farther. The larger 
the scope for one's imagination the more likely is one 
to find his peculiar bent, if he has one; on the farm 
also there is opportunity for observation and time for 
reflection; hence, from it come teachers, preachers, 
poets, artists, statesmen, and leaders in every calling. 

But some of the conditions named above are too 

often wanting in country life, namely, schools, churches, 

social and literary advantages. Thousands of boys 

and girls grow up in the country with their aesthetic 

16 



242 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

and social instincts starved rather than cultivated, 
with their mental and spiritual longings quenched 
instead of developed. It is not for lack of mental 
endowment but because the world of nature around 
them is a closed book, they cannot read it, the social 
life is either wanting or of a kind that is detrimental, 
while books, pictures, music, the things that enlighten, 
refine and arouse the ambitions are not provided. 

Extraordinary Cases. — Some one may say these things 
are not essential and cite in proof of their conten- 
tion the lives of such men as Patrick Henr>% Henry 
Clay, and Abraham Lincoln who were shut off in their 
environment from these very things — that genius 
will give an account of itself no matter what the en- 
vironment. The answer is that these men were the 
product of peculiar conditions that no longer prevail. 
Patrick Henry, the fox-hunting youth of Virginia, 
grew up in the soul-stirring period preceding the Ameri- 
can Revolution, his freedom-loving spirit burned in 
indignation at oppression of any sort. His fame as a 
hunter brought him into frecjuent contact with many 
of the brightest minds of the day, and the great topic of 
discussion was the tyranny of George IH and the op- 
pression of the colonies. In the depths of the forests 
his meditations were undisturbed, while the works 
of God about him gave him the clear ^'ision of the rights 
of man in general and of the condition of the colonists 
in particular. His was just the environment to pro- 
duce the kind of man needed for leadership, whose 



IMAGINATION 243 

clear vision could drive away the mists of doubt in 
men's minds. 

Henry Clay, "the Mill boy of the Slashes," was 
brought up among the Cavaliers who settled in the rich 
blue-grass lands of Kentucky, a people of intelligence, 
culture and high spirit, w^ho believed in the schools 
and churches and liberty of conscience, were intensely 
patriotic and prone to take a hand in the politics of the 
time. It was a time when oratory was the principal 
medium of enlightenment; and here environment, 
coupled with the inherited genius and the towering 
ambition of the subject, brought forth the Great Pacif- 
icator. 

Abraham Lincoln, the rail splitter, a child of the wil- 
derness, had a good mother, and after her death a sym- 
pathetic step-mother, a few of the best books the world 
afforded, and the titanic struggle against poverty and 
hardship which his great soul needed for its full develop- 
ment. He had the social life incident to the clearing 
up of a new, rich country, of keeping a country store 
and post-office, the stimulation of a river trip to New 
Orleans and seeing there the oppression of a race at a 
time when his youthful, free-trained soul was most 
impressible. Thereafter he had the powerful impetus 
of his heaven-registered vow to "hit slavery hard." 
He had the training of the Black Hawk war, and the 
varied and extended experience of an itinerant country 
la\^7■er. He acquired his ability to debate where con- 
ventionalism counted for little, whUe knowledge of the 



244 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

subject, ready wit, power of retort, counted for every- 
thing. All these and much more, united with the most 
marvelous combination of mind and heart this country 
has known, produced the great war president. 

The combination of circumstances that produced 
these men was peculiar to a new country and to strange 
and rare crises and are not to be counted on in this 
or any other age; and even if men of such remarkable 
gem'us could afford to dispense with the customary 
materials of education it does not follow that the great 
mass of mankind can do so. Genius seldom reveals 
itself in youth, and if it did it would not be safe to run 
the chances of neglect, lest it develop into a Jesse James 
instead of an Abraham Lincoln. 

The Cultivation of the I]vl\glnation 

There are three factors that have an important part 
in the cultivation of the imagination, play, work, and 
school. To these a fourth might be added, viz., social 
life. It need not concern us which of these has the great- 
est part to perform, they are all of sufhcient weight to 
merit our careful consideration. 

Play comes first in the point of time and affords the 
greatest opportunity for the spontaneous activity of 
the mind and body and the widest scope for originality 
of thought and action. To bring about these desirable 
conditions play should be arranged for, both in the 
home and at school, so that it will not be interfered 
with by unfavorable weather and not be delayed or 



IMAGINATION 245 

postponed for work or other duties. Time, place, 
materials, and methods should all be provided for with 
the same care and attention that is given to study and to 
work. 

As stated in a former chapter the materials for play 
need not be costly; plain, simple, home-made things 
are the best, but care should be taken that there be no 
lack either in quantity or quality. Ordinarily children 
are not well supplied with means of amusement. They 
are idle, restless, and inclined to fall into mischief sim- 
ply because they have exhausted their sources of in- 
teresting occupation. The}^ are scolded, punished, 
made cross, irritable and perhaps vicious when a proper 
attention to their wants w^ould have produced a very 
different and most desirable result. 

Boys, and girls too, should be furnished with such 
simple tools as age and skill permit them to use. The 
jack-knife will do very well for a beginning and will 
serve many a useful purpose, but it should be followed 
in good time with hammer and saw and these with still 
others as they are needed. The constructive imagi- 
nation will be greatly benefited by the ownership of 
these tools. A child will think, plan, imagine, and ex- 
periment for days together in the construction of a 
bridge, a mill, a trap, or a kite. All his mental powers 
are brought to bear upon it. Hand, eye, and brain are 
being co-ordinated, each requiring skill in itself and 
learning to do team w^ork with the others. The habit 
of industry, the love of work is being formed while 



246 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the rewards of labor become apparent in the things 
achieved. 

Games played in groups or crowds are likewise bene- 
ficial in the cultivation of the imagination. Every 
child admires certain traits which he sees exemplified 
in those older or further advanced than himself, such 
as strength, skill, courage, endurance. He cultivates 
these traits and sees himself winning laurels and re- 
ceiving the plaudits of admiring crowds. He will 
practice for days, weeks, and even years to bring him- 
self to the standard he has set; and as one is achieved 
new and more difficult tasks will be set. He will keep 
striving and achieving until he has exhausted the pos- 
sibilities for himself in this kind of life, when new am- 
bitions will claim his attention and he will turn to them 
with the same energy and determination that charac- 
terized his earlier efforts. 

Work as an Aid in the Cultivation of the 
Imaglnation 

Almost any kind of work divested of imagination 
becomes the veriest drudgery; clothed with this power 
it may rise to a seventh heaven of delight. The man 
who has no imagination is a plodder, always at the foot 
of the procession, never seeing anything but realities in 
the things around him. To him a day's work is a da}''s 
work, a dollar is a dollar; eat, drink, work, sleep, — there 
is nothing else in life. On the other hand the ability 
to let the imagination soar to the dizziest heights yet 



IMAGINATION 247 

keeping it within the bounds of reason and of prac- 
ticability makes an immortal missionary of Livingston, 
a world renowned explorer of Stanley, a new- world 
discoverer of Columbus, a powerful preacher of John 
Wesley, a masterful poet of the plowman Robert Burns, 
a military genius and founder of empires of an obscure 
Corsican lad. But why multiply examples? All the 
work of the world, of a progressive sort, is due to the 
power of vision possessed by those who have been the 
leaders in thought and action. 

Children are particularly fond of using imagination 
in their work. Henry is not cutting weeds, he is slaying 
giants; an especially obdurate specimen gets an extra 
whack accompanied with a "Take that for your tough 
old stem." The "tough old stem" lies low while the 
victor exults as though having triumphed in a personal 
conflict. Mary is not hemming an apron for kitchen 
drudgery, she is fashioning a silken gown wherein 
she herself shall shine as the "belle of the ball." Tom 
Sawyer is not whitewashing his aunt's fence, — he is the 
rich contractor letting it out in sections to the highest 
bidder, having a care not to demand more than his 
eager visionaries can pay. 

It is by this power of vision that work is glorified. 
It is this that marks the difference between the "Man 
With the Hoe" and the peasant girl listening to the 
"Song of the Lark;" the one is sodden, the other is 
enraptured. It was this same power of the imagination 
that enabled the peasant girl, Jeanne D'Arc, to see 



248 THE TRAININCi OF CHILDREN 

herself leading the armies of France, bringing order out 
of chaos, winning victories and cro^^^ling the king at 
Rheims, all of which when brought to pass were simply 
her earlier visions materialized. 

It is the right and should be the privilege of eveiy 
growing boy and girl to have work. There is nothing 
so stimulating as work, it is the source of all achieve- 
ment; but for children it should be varied. If they are 
kept at the same dull grind day in and day out, there 
will be no inspiration or joy in it. For the purpose of 
education at least, work should be chosen with a view of 
its fitness for the mind as well as for the physical powers. 
If this is done, children will enjoy it fully as much as 
they enjoy their play and it will prove perhaps quite as 
valuable to them from an educational standpoint. 

What the School ]\l\y do tor the Imagination 

School, like work, may be a place of monotony, dull- 
ness and daily grind, of hard tasks and tiresome re- 
quirements, a place disliked always and avoided when- 
ever possible. "WTiere there is no vision the people 
perish" is a truth that applies to the schoolroom about 
as well as it applied to the Jewish nation in the day 
of the prophets. 

If there is any person in the world who should be 
gifted with a lively imagination it is the school teacher. 
The "Three R's" require a vast amount of toil for their 
mastery in any case, but when reduced to mere drudgery 
the task is appalling. If the child is to take any de- 



IMAGINATION 249 

light in learning to read he must see visions that will 
make his mastery of the art a triumph. Father reads 
something aloud and mother is deeply interested; fre- 
quently some one reads while all the older members 
of the family listen; sometimes they find it very amusing 
and join in laughter, sometimes they are moved to 
tears, but always they are interested. Then what 
beautiful stories mother reads to us out of the big 
Bible where the pictures are! Teacher, too, reads us 
stories of wonderful people and of children and ani- 
mals and birds,— it must be delightful to be able to 
read. When this state of mind has been reached (and' 
the desire should always be implanted before the les- 
sons are begun), the path of learning becomes smooth 
and easy. 

It is just as important that the lessons themselves 
should have something for the imagination to play upon. 
Almost any modern primer or first reader is a model 
in this respect. With great care the lessons have been 
made to touch child life at the most interesting points. 
Since we read by means of M^ords, one might suppose 
that words are all v/e need in learning to read. It is 
not so. The child learns to know the words by means 
of delightful little stories and the stories are made more 
interesting by means of the pictures that accompany 
them. By far the greater part of reading is the ability 
to form correct and adecjuate images of the ideas for 
which the words stand and this ability should be ac- 
quired as rapidly as possible from the start; hence the 



250 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

desirability of the stories and the pictures in the first 
lessons. 

This power of forming images of the ideas in the 
reading matter should be cultivated with much care 
all through the grades. The study of all literature 
whether of science or art or histor\' depends upon it. 
If we read a description of a flower or of a sunset, we 
must be able to form a mental picture of the one or the 
other, else the description will mean nothing to us. 
What benefit is it to read of a beautiful building, statue 
or painting unless we can fill in every detail with our 
own mental images? How shall we understand history 
unless we can see every event described as though it 
were taking place before our eyes? Not only must we 
be able to see all that is suggested by the words but 
we must be able to fill in with the imagination all that 
is omitted in the word picture. In fact the word picture 
will be the stronger if it leaves to the imagination suffi- 
cient to tax it to considerable effort. 

The Same Power used in Learning Numbers 

It is true that in the end we must have a knowledge 
of numbers in the abstract but it is equally true that 
we should be a long time acquiring that knowledge if 
we are compelled to gain it in that way. Some of us 
who were taught in the old way remember what a task 
it was to commit the multiplication table to memor}-. 
We really never could remember the combinations until 
we passed on to where they were exemplified in terms 



IMAGINATION 251 

of Henry and James and John and Susan in connection 
with pennies, marbles, tops, and apples. Even then the 
doses were usually too large for us and we were obliged 
to keep in communication with the table by means 
of a surreptitious thumb or finger. 

How different it all is in these days. Children are no 
longer set the disagreeable task of learning the multi- 
plication table but acquire their knowledge just as they 
need it by means of interesting experiments and charm- 
ing examples, no time wasted, no tears, scoldings, 
threatenings, punishments, defeats, — it is the dawn 
of the child's millennium. In the olden days the life 
of the subject was taken out of it by tables, rules, and 
definitions that were barren of imaginary possibilities. 
No wonder the schools were not popular in those days 
and that only a few of the brightest minds were ever 
able to penetrate the dead shell with which learning 
was incrusted and become infected with the lively 
germs that were hidden within. 

Every study in the curriculum will if given a chance 
afford exercise for the imagination, and this power in 
turn, growing by what it feeds upon, will help to master 
many intricacies and will keep learning from seeming 
what it really is not, — a drj' and uninteresting thing. 

The Value of Certain Kinds of Liteila.ture in the 
Cultivation of the Imagination 

The question as to whether or not literature that is 
based upon imagination is safe for the minds and morals 



252 THK TRATXIXC OF CHILDREN 

of children has long been a vexed one and is still held 
in doubt by many people. There is no denying that 
children take vast delight in fairy stories and in fables; 
but this fact was scarcely favorable to their use in the 
olden da}'s when Satan was supposed to be at the root 
of everything that was really delightful. 

As to the value of such literature there is not in these 
days so much doubt; but as to the manner of its use 
there is still diversity of opinion. Shall children be 
permitted to regale themselves with it, and be allowed 
and even encouraged to believe in its literal truthful- 
ness? Up to a comparatively recent date all the world 
believed in spirits, goblins, spooks, witches, and ghosts. 
Since children must in their development pass through 
all the evolutionary stages of the race, should they not 
have their period of fairies and giants? The Hebrews 
had their Samson and their David and Goliath, the 
Greeks had their Hercules accomplishing his twelve 
tasks, the Anglo-Saxons had their Beowulf slaying the 
great fiend Grendel, and even our own immediate an- 
cestors had their St. George and the Dragon. Not 
the children only, but the grown-ups of these races be- 
lieved the wondrous tales; and shall not the children of 
to-day have their Jack the Giant Killer and their 
Cinderella and be permitted to believe in them, to be 
thrilled, inspired and led on to supreme effort in imi- 
tation of their admirable virtues? Will it do the little 
ones irreparable harm to believe in the Big Bear, the 
Little Bear, and the Middle-sized Bear? Will their 



IMAGINATION 253 

morals and perhaps their eternal salvation be in jeopardy 
if they have the utmost faith in dear old Santa Claus? 
Or must this blissful realm of childhood be ruthlessly 
invaded and destroyed for the sake of the literal ex- 
actitude of a material and unbelieving age? 

The chief objection perhaps to this childish belief 
lies in the supposed shock that comes to the mind when 
it discovers, as it must sooner or later, that these stories 
are not literally true, that the characters that have so 
wrought upon the feelings as to arouse the deepest 
admiration and respect are merely the figments of the 
imagination. Will all the delights of Fairyland be a 
sufficient recompense for the loss of that perfect faith 
that a child has in its elders when he learns that he has 
been deceived, that the very persons who should have 
preserved him from wrong beliefs, led him into them 
and are now admitted that they knew all the time that 
he was being deceived? 

Such a shock would be disastrous enough if it should 
really happen, but the fact is it seldom does, certainly 
only in those cases when the children's inquiries have 
been answered by the positive assertion that there is a 
Santa Claus and that he really brings the gifts. Most 
parents are wise enough to treat Santa as the spirit 
of Christmas and let the children draw their own con- 
clusions as to his reality or nonreality. 

It is difficult to draw hard and fast lines and say here 
lies safety on the one side and here lies danger on the 
other. It will probably not lessen their enjoyment 



254 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

but be a sufficient safeguard to their credulity if they 
are told, for example, that a "fable is a story in which 
birds and other animals are supposed to talk, although 
they never do so." The childish imagination will leap 
to the appeal of the stor}' about as well in the one case 
as in the other. The great stories that have survived 
the ravages of time come down to us bearing no com- 
ment as to whether they are literally or only spiritually 
true. It may be a disappointment to us to learn that 
William Tell is merely a fictitious character, but yet 
that knowledge cannot strip the story of its beauty 
or lessen its moral value. One may have read the 
parables of the Prodigal Son and the Good Samaritan 
with absolute belief in their literal reality, and he 
may then be brought to the opinion that they are 
products of the imagination used as illustrations of 
profound principles, and yet regard them with no less 
reverence or look upon their author with no less faith 
than before. 

The one thing that will be insisted upon here is that 
children should not be deprived of imaginative liter- 
ature and that in sufficient quantity to meet all reason- 
able demands. Such literature should be chosen with 
the same care that would characterize the selection 
of other types. Only that which is standard or approved 
by the best authorities should be admitted. Neither 
this nor any other one type of reading matter should re- 
ceive more than its fair share of attention. A healthful 
variety should always be provided. 



imagination 255 

Social Life a Strong Factor in Developing 
Imagination 

It is doubtful if there is any phase of hfe that has 
more to do with the growth of the imagination than has 
the exercise of the social instincts. This is especially 
true after the age of twelve to fourteen years has been 
reached. The average boy or girl does a great deal of 
mental picturing as to the part he or she shall play in 
society both in the immediate future and in the years 
to come. The part actually played at the present may 
have little to do with the character of these mental 
pictures. If for any reason one is handicapped in his 
actual experiences he is apt to construct a set of con- 
ditions where no such handicap exists. 

As a rule, parents and teachers are not taken into the 
confidence of the children in this particular kind of 
imagining. The incongruity of these mental pictures 
is almost certain to provoke laughter and often ridicule 
which the sensitive nature of the young will not bear, 
and restraint is practiced. It would be vastly better if 
the elders would refrain from anything savoring of ridi- 
cule but would rather encourage complete confidence in 
bringing all such imaginings to light. Then they would 
have an opportunity to guide the young minds in their 
aspirations and set them right in many a matter where 
their inexperience is leading them astray. 

There is little danger that too much attention will be 
paid to the cultivation of this important faculty. So 



256 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

far the fault has all been in the opposite direction . When 
we reflect what wonderful achievements are wrought 
by the imagination and how little data we have for 
gauging the possibilities of the undeveloped powers of a 
child we can see how necessar}^ it is that each one should 
have every opportunity for the cultivation of those 
powers so that the very zenith of possibility may be 
reached. 



CHAPTER XV 

The Thinking Power 

Thinking is the highest power bestowed upon mortals. 
Upon it depends all our progress in social life, in govern- 
ment, and in religion. In order to think we do not need 
the object of our reflections before us; we may call 
upon memor}' and imagination to supply the materials, 
pass them in review before us, compare them with past 
experiences and come to a conclusion. 

If a friend presents an idea to us proposing a certain 
line of conduct which we cannot at the moment fathom, 
we may say we will consider it and decide later. This 
is because we cannot at once summon a sufficient 
number of past experiences and in the light of them 
judge wisely as to the probable outcome of new com- 
binations. We reflect that a certain thing or state of 
things produced certain results in the past; here are 
similar conditions; the result will therefore be about 
the same. This is the course of reasoning the world 
over, and though it seems very simple and easy there 
are multitudes of complexities and the task is often ex- 
ceedingly difficult. 

We can see how memory is a prime aid to thought 
because without it we cannot call up for review our 
17 257 



258 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

past experiences and what became of them. Imagi- 
nation is just as necessary^, for it not only presents to 
us in pictures the past but enables us to see new com- 
binations and the results they are likely to bring. 

The power to think does not manifest itself so early 
in life as those we have been considering. Sensation, 
observation, perception, memory and imagination 
must in the nature of things precede it. Neither does 
it mature as early as the others. Wlien the power to 
memorize is at its height the thinking powder is yet in 
the early stages of its growth. This is because expe- 
rience must supply the data for thought, and youth 
lacks experience. 

Yet a child is not without the power to reason. WTien 
the little one turns his head at a familiar sound and, 
not catching sight, turns in the other direction it is an 
indication of thought. When he discovers that crying 
brings attention he reasons, unconsciously, of course, 
in this fashion: "Before when I cried I got what I 
wanted: if I cr>^ now I will get what I want; therefore 
I will cry." The child sees a light and tries to grasp 
it; if he succeeds it burns him. The next time he will 
avoid it. This is his reasoning: "The light hurt me 
when I touched it; this is a light, therefore it will hurt 
me if I touch it; I will not touch it." 

Observe that there are three parts to this reasoning: 
the first part is called the major premise; the second, 
the minor premise; the third part is called the conclusion. 
Deciding upon a course of action with respect to the 



THE THINKING POWER 259 

conclusion is not a part of the reasoning but the re- 
sult of it. 

There are two principal chances of reaching wrong 
conclusions. The most likely chance lies in the major 
premise. The child thinks that because the nurse 
has always come at his call she will always do so. But 
the nurse decides that his crying has become a mere 
whim to secure her attention and does not come. 
The child finds his reasoning at fault, cannot under- 
stand it and grows very angry. The trouble lies in the 
fact that his major premise was not thoroughly estab- 
lished. He will now have to revise it something after 
this fashion: ''Crying may or may not bring the nurse; 
it is or it is not worth trying." 

It will take many years of experience to overcome the 
fault of relying on poorly established major premises. 
The great majority of people never do overcome it 
entirely. It is otherwise known as generalizing with- 
out having examined a sufficient number of individual 
cases. It is also called jumping at conclusions. We 
see a thing happening in a certain way two or three 
times and jump at the conclusion that it mU always 
happen that way. If we should discover three mer- 
chants cheating and knew nothing of other merchants 
we might conclude that all merchants cheat. The next 
time we dealt with one, we should probably reason in 
this way: "So far as my knowledge goes all merchants 
cheat; this man is a merchant, therefore he will cheat 
me if he can." When we find on several occasions 



26o THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

that our judgment is wrong our major premises go 
through a series of revisions, the first of which is that 
not all merchants are dishonest but most of them are: 
finally we say merchants are just like other men : some 
are honest while others are perfectly reliable. Thus 
experience helps us in our reasoning. Intelligent think- 
ing, however, might have saved us from going wrong 
in the first instance. It would be better to reason thus : 
"So far as my know^ledge goes all merchants are dis- 
honest. I see no reason for this however, and as I know 
but three it would not be fair to judge the whole class 
by them." 

The second chance to go astray is in the minor prem- 
ise. Suppose w^e have established the major premise 
to a reasonable certainty that wood will burn. We see 
an object and we say this is wood therefore it will burn. 
Upon investigating we find the object will not burn. 
The question now is to find where the fault lies. Either 
it is not true that wood will always burn or else this is 
not wood. One or the other is inevitable. If it is per- 
fectly certain that wood will always burn then we may 
be just as certain that this object no matter how much it 
resembles it in other respects, is not wood. In this mat- 
ter of identity w^e are just as likely to be deceived in 
thinking a thing is not what it is as we are in thinking it 
is what it is not. This brings us to the law of identity. 

The same thing or quality is always the same thing or 
quality no matter in what form it may appear. 

This is important to remember, as those who think 



THE THINKING POWER 261 

themselves wise in detecting are prone to be deceived. 
The "gold brick scheme" has been worked in scores of 
different ways yet it frequently happens that shrewd 
business men are caught by it, even those who are sure 
they would recognize it in any form. 

The first element in thinking is comparison — the 
ability to see differences and likenesses in the objects 
presented to our senses. When we find two or more ob- 
jects are alike in important particulars, we put them in 
the same group ; other objects essentially different from 
these but resembling each other in certain points, we 
put by themselves : this is called classification. We may 
now make a study of each group looking for differences, 
and make new divisions remembering that each new 
group comes under the class from which it was taken. 
We then proceed to name our classes and sub-classes. 
We may now go on examining object after object, plac- 
ing each one where it belongs. 

For illustration, suppose we should make a study of 
the animals that we see around us. Our first aim 
should be to find some important difference that would 
enable us to put them in two classes. This may re- 
quire much careful searching. So far as our observation 
extended we might decide that all animals had either 
two or four feet, and make our main classes accordingly. 
Soon we should discover that some animals had more 
than four feet while some had none at all; we should 
then be compelled to discard our classification and look 
for some other distinction. 



262 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

Eventually we should discover that some animals 
have backbones and others have not; and readily de- 
ciding, no matter how far our observation may extend, 
that we shall never find an animal but what either has 
or has not a backbone we might properly make that our 
main classification. In fact it is the one that has been 
adopted by scholars the world over. 

We may now formulate a second law of thought, 
namely: In respect to any particular that the mind can 
conceive a thing either is or is not. 

An object is either black or not black, white or not 
white. It might be neither black nor white but this 
would not affect the law. 

We may now proceed with our study of animals, 
placing each one in the class to which it belongs by 
simply observing that it has or has not a backbone. 
Science has named these two divisions vertebrates 
and invertebrates. The next step is to subdivide these 
two main classes. Here we shall meet the same diffi- 
culty as before and it may require a great deal of search- 
ing. We must find an important difference that will 
hold good under any and all conditions. Suppose we 
begin with \^ertebrates. We might say some are large 
and others small, and make that the basis. But here 
our law of thought comes in. When we have adopted 
a standard of size we shall find many that are neither 
large nor small, therefore we cannot make that a basis. 
After much hard thinking and comparing one quality 
with another, we should discover that some vertebrates 



THE THINKING POWER 263 

suckle their young while others do not. This conforms 
to the law above stated and is again the division that 
scientists have adopted. 

Thus we may go on as long as we live comparing, 
separating, collecting, analyzing, classifying, and nam- 
ing. The field is wide, the world of knowledge still in 
its youth, and every step gives pleasure. The man who 
extends his knowledge further than his fellows becomes 
famous and every new discover)^ adds to his renown. 
He may also become rich if he will, but his main delight 
will be in the search for and acquisition of knowledge. 

We have spoken of the study of animals but knowl- 
edge cannot make headway in one line alone. If we 
would understand animal life we must also under- 
stand plant life, for animals depend upon plants for 
their food. Plants in their turn depend upon minerals 
while heat, light, and air are necessary to all. A com- 
plete investigation of any one thing would lead us into 
all the realms of knowledge in the universe. Added to 
the infinite variet}^ of objects is the fact that nothing 
remains as we find it. There is constant change going 
on in everj'thing and these changes must be studied. 
There is life and death, regeneration and degeneration, 
development and decay. There is no danger of ex- 
hausting the field of knowledge. Sir Isaac Newton was 
a very wise man yet he compared himself to a child 
playing on the beach, selecting a pebble here and there 
brighter than the others around it, while the great 
ocean of truth lay unexplored before him. 



264 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

Unclassified knowledge has little usable value. A mass 
of facts or materials may be valuable to the collector be- 
cause of the time and labor spent in collecting them but 
until they are assorted and put in order they are little 
better than rubbish. Collecting, analyzing, and classi- 
fying become then a large part of one's education, and 
no better field can be found than that which is all about 
us, namely the animal, plant, and mineral kingdoms. 

Before making a special study of any one of these 
kingdoms it is best to have a wide general acquaintance 
with all of them. When children first enter school they 
know the names and some of the characteristics of a 
vast number of objects. They have reasonably cor- 
rect ideas, although they cannot define them, of classi- 
fication so that they can readily tell to what kingdom 
an object belongs. An attempt to classify very closely 
in their earlier years would not be wise. Youth is 
chiefly concerned in gathering a wealth of general 
ideas so that as the mind matures it may have an 
abundance of material for thought. 

How We Acquire General Ideas or Concepts. — ^We 
learned in a previous chapter that when an object is 
presented to one or more of the senses and the mind 
takes notice of it, it is called perception and that the 
complete act is a particular idea known as a percept. 
The forming of percepts is the first step toward the 
concept or general idea. We may perceive an object 
and not be able to determine what it is. This brings 
us to the second step which is comparison. 



THE THINKING POWER 265 

When the mind takes knowledge of an object the 
first question is, what is it? If the answer is not forth- 
coming the next question immediately follows, what is 
it like? In either case the mind at once proceeds to call 
up by memory other objects for comparison. For ex- 
ample, a certain odor is perceived; we say, mentally per- 
haps, " What is that? It smells like an orange." Here 
we have called to mind a previous impression and recog- 
nize this as similar. If we are not entirely satisfied 
we may seek out the object and verify our impression 
by other senses as touch, sight, and taste. If the object 
is entirely new to us, that is, if we never had any knowl- 
edge of an orange before, we proceed to test it by all 
the senses, comparing it with the things we know. It 
is something like an apple in shape and size; it is also 
pleasant to the smell and to the taste; but it is not an 
apple because so far as our knowledge extends all apples 
have a smooth surface. However, since it has some of 
the qualities of an apple it may be a fruit. Its color is 
yellow; but color, that is any particular color, is not an 
essential quality to fruit. We further discover that it 
has a covering, a juicy pulp, an acid or sweet taste, and 
without further hesitation we classify it as a fruit; 
M'hen we have named it and examined enough different 
specimens to give us a good general idea of what oranges 
are, our concept, for the time being, at least, is complete. 

Let us now examine this concept more closely to see 
exactly how it was formed. The first and second steps 
have been sufhciently explained. The third step was 



266 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

taken when we were compelled to take away color from 
our general idea of fruit. This process of taking away 
qualities not common or necessary to the class is called 
abstraction. 

When we found that the object possessed all the 
general qualities contained in our conception of fruit 
we at once put it in that class. Thus classification is the 
fourth step. The fifth and last step was taken when we 
named the object an orange. This is called denomina- 
tion. 

It is to be noted that our concepts are subject to 
change as our investigations extend. Our concept of 
orange while complete was not necessarily perfect. 
We observed that the orange was yellow, and that 
quality formed a part of the concept. If we ever find 
a red, white, or black orange we shall be compelled to 
abstract the quality yellow from the concept. Thus we 
see that a concept is not an image of a particular ob- 
ject but a general idea of a class of objects and must 
contain only the qualities common to every member 
of the class so far as our knowledge extends. A complete 
concept can be obtained only when every member 
of the class has been examined. 

When a child has known but one dog his concept goes 
no farther than that. If the one of his experience is a 
shepherd and the next one he meets is a pug, he will 
at once recognize it by generalization as a dog, but his 
concept will undergo a number of changes to correspond 
with the different qualities he obser^■es. The next one 



THE THINKING POWER 267 

will require still further modifications, and there is no 
telling when, if ever, his concept will be complete. 

In the light of these explanations the value of a wide 
range of experience is readily seen. The concepts of a 
child are so imperfect that his reasoning is of little 
value to any but himself. His love of generalizing leads 
him into many errors but as a rule they are not serious. 
When he calls a furry glove a "kitty" he knows it is 
not a kitten; he is simply classifying it to the best of 
his knowledge. If you should offer him the glove when 
he called for the kitten, he would quickly convince you 
that he was not to be deceived. When such errors 
are real they are best corrected by extending his ob- 
servation except where danger is involved. He might 
classify a poisonous substance as food and proceed to 
act upon his judgment. In such cases there is no doubt 
about the course to pursue. 

In childhood and youth perception is ever on the 
alert and memors^ is strong to retain impressions while 
reasoning" is difficult. In after life perception is not so 
sharp nor memory so reliable while reasoning becomes 
a second nature. Middle-aged and old people reason 
upon everything and are always drawing conclusions 
many of which are wrong because of lack of knowledge. 
This gives us the key to education; youth is the time 
to gather, classify, and store away knowledge, maturity 
is the time to use it. 

Children should be taught to observe closely so that 
their perceptions shall be accurate. Oral and written 



268 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

descriptions and drawing are great helps to accurate 
perception. Children should also be given much prac- 
tice in comparing objects and making a list of differences 
and likenesses. Ask an untrained child the difference 
between a dog and a cat and he will name only a few 
particulars, while one who has been trained to observe 
closely and compare sharply will readily name a score 
or more. Many people cannot tell beef from mutton, 
cannot distinguish one color from another, cannot re- 
member faces, and this is not because their powers of 
mind are lacking but from want of training. 

Two objects may be compared by writing down all 
the qualities of each in separate columns; write in a 
third column the qualities that are common to both 
and in a fourth those that are not common to both. 
This will show at a glance in what respects they are 
alike and in what they differ. In this way compare a 
potato and an apple, a flower and a weed, a horse and a 
cow, a boy and a man, and so on. It will be astonishing 
how quickly the mind will learn to detect and name 
peculiarities. 

Such a procedure will materially aid the child in 
forming accurate concepts. For instance a careful 
comparison of fruits and vegetables will give clearer 
concepts of each. likewise of plants and animals, 
of birds and reptiles, of land and water, etc. 

Seeing relations between objects apparently dis- 
similar is a most valuable acquirement that comes by 
long practice and deep thought. None but a thinker 



THE THINKING POWER 269 

could see the relation between a swaying chandelier and 
an instrument to measure time ; between a faUing apple 
and the sweep of the heavenly bodies; the failing sight 
of age and a bit of glass. The successful man is the 
one who can see relations where others cannot. 

Children may be taught to see relations by easy 
stages. They can see the relation between idleness and 
want; between industry and plenty; between the cold 
of winter and the wool on the sheep's back; between 
scarcity in one part of the world and means of trans- 
portation; between the raw material and the finished 
product. By numerous illustrations the child should 
early be taught to see the relation of ignorance to want 
and crime; of education to enlightenment and pros- 
perity and righteous living; of the petty wrongdoer to 
the criminal, and so on. 

Reading with a proper amount of time for meditation 
is an excellent aid to thought, in fact there is none 
greater. It extends our knowledge and widens our 
acquaintance. It keeps us in touch with the thoughts 
and actions of thousands of people of whom we should 
otherwise be in ignorance. By reading we make our- 
selves the heir to all the wisdom of past ages. It 
furnishes us with an abundance of material for thought. 
It enables us to profit by the experiences of those whom 
we never saw, to enjoy the bright sayings of the wise, 
to take warning from the evil ways of the wicked. In 
short it affords us the privilege of living in the whole 
civiUzed world instead of in our own little corner. 



CHAPTER XVI 
THE FEELINGS 

Every mental act from the merest sensation to the 
highest t>pe of thinking is accompanied by feeling. 
One defines feeling as the agreeable or disagreeable 
side of ever)^ mental act or state; another describes it 
as the interesting side of all mental activity. It is co- 
incident with consciousness ; in fact consciousness could 
not exist without it, or if it could it would be without 
attraction or desirability. 

Feeling in its lowest or most animal terms is mere 
sensation, as hunger, cold, pain, or physical comfort; 
in its highest terms it is expressed in wonder, awe, ado- 
ration; between these two extremes occur all the ex- 
periences that man is capable of having. 

For the purpose of study from the standpoint of the 
teacher, the Feelings may be divided into three groups, 
viz. I. Sensuous feelings, or those that are strictly or 
mainly physical in their nature; 2. Intellectual, those 
that accompany the acquisition of knowledge for its 
own sake and reflection thereupon; 3. Associated feel- 
ings, the emotions as they are popularly understood, as 
love, fear, hate, etc. 

Feelings, as suggested above, have been defined by 

270 



THE FEELINGS 27 1 

some as the agreeable or disagreeable side of every 
mental act. This is true so far as the quality of feel- 
ings is concerned, at least all feelings are either agree- 
able or not agreeable, and we will allow the extremes 
to go as far in either direction as the sensibilities of our 
natures will permit; but such a definition does not go 
far enough since it does not cover the real reason for 
the existence of many of our feelings. Physical pain 
is not a pleasant feeling and yet its value is so great 
that without it we should be in constant danger of 
physical destruction. Hunger is not an agreeable sen- 
sation yet without it animals would neglect to keep 
themselves alive. It is safe to say that all feelings 
are useful and necessary either to life itself or to our 
ultimate happiness. 

Sensuous Feelings 

The first knowledge of this world acquired by any 
individual comes through feeling and is at first and for a 
time vague and indefinite. If an infant's finger should 
be crushed he would not be able to assign the pain 
occasioned thereby to any particular part of the body 
not having yet realized himself as having limbs or parts. 
Let us nov/ observe how this knowledge of one's self is 
acquired. 

The Quality of Feelings. — The attribute that enables 
us to recognize one kind of feeling from another, or one 
sensation from another, is known as quality. If all 
feelings were alike we should remain as helpless as the 



272 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

new-born infant, we should never be able to identify 
any. Each sense organ as the eye, the ear, the nose, 
has its own peculiar qualities of feeling not attributable 
to any other organ. Each spot on the surface of the 
body has qualities distinct from every other spot, else 
we should not be able to locate it when touched. This 
provision is necessary to our welfare. If we could not 
tell by the quality of the pain in a finger whether it be- 
longed to the right or the left hand we should be likely 
to make the discovery through other means too late 
to avoid serious injury. 

Some parts of the body are much more sensitive and 
consequently more quickly and easily located than 
others. The fingers are more sensitive to touch than 
the toes, the palms of the hands than the back of the 
hands, the face than the back of the neck. Those parts 
that are most exposed to danger or subject to constant 
use are, as a rule, the most sensitive. The qualities 
of the feelings of many of our internal organs are so 
little known to us that we cannot identify them. We 
may suffer pain as the result of some internal injury 
and yet not be able to identify the organ which is 
responsible. 

Quality of Feeling in the Sense Organs. — Each of the 
sense organs, as before stated, has its own distinct qual- 
ities of sensation but some far more than others. This 
great difference may be due, in part at least, to the dif- 
ference in the source of the sensations. The eye is sen- 
sitive to light carried by vibrations of ether, the vi- 



THE FEELINGS 273 

brations breaking upon the retina at the rate of many 
milhons per second. The ear is sensitive to vibrations 
of air that strike the tympanum at the rate of a few 
hundreds or a few thousands per second. It is easy 
to see that there may be a great difference between the 
two, but why one should result in sight and the other 
in sound we cannot tell. The organs of touch respond 
to the vibrations of matter, and here again the dis- 
tinction is obvious, but why it should be just what it is 
is beyond us. The sense of smell is due to the impact 
of molecules of matter upon the olfactory nerve, while 
the sense of taste is similarly due to the contact of 
molecules with the taste buds, though with this differ- 
ence that in the latter case the molecules must be sol- 
uble. As one would expect from their sources, the qual- 
ities of the last named senses are much more alike than 
any of the others and are in fact not always discernible 
the one from the other. 

The Effect of Quantity upon Sensuous Feelings. — 
Perhaps the most important feature of quantity is its 
relation to the agreeable or disagreeable side of feelings. 
Of the various stimuli that are agreeable, the degree of 
pleasure is frequently in direct proportion to the amount 
involved. This is true within certain limits only. An 
amount of light that one can merely grope about in is 
painful to the eyes, a little more is pleasurable, and 
up to the point of abundance the increase of pleasure 
practically keeps pace with the increase of the amount 
of the stimulus. Beyond the point of abundance pain- 
18 



274 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

fulness sets in and steadily increases, up to the last 
l)oint of endurance. Pain likewise increases with the 
amount of the stimulus up to a certain point above 
which the sense organs are mercifully dulled and any 
increase in the quantity of the stimulus only tends to 
deaden the pain. This analogy of pain with pleasure 
does not hold good on the descending scale to the point 
that pain is converted into pleasure as pleasure is con- 
verted into pain. One can conceive of torture increas- 
ing up to a point where the nerves would refuse to re-' 
spond further and any increase would only serve to 
deaden the pain and make it more endurable, but one 
cannot conceive of that pain turning into pleasure. 

This principle, or perhaps it might better be called 
this general impression, that the amount of pleasure is 
directly proportional to the quantity of the source of 
that pleasure is responsible for much of the striving 
of mankind after wealth and happiness, though the re- 
sult when the desired quantity has been attained is 
often disappointing. When a boy receives his first 
dollar it affords him a vast amoimt of pleasure, and he 
thinks what wonderful happiness would be his if he had 
a hundred dollars, not doubting but that his pleasure 
would be increased accordingl}^ Experience, however, 
abundantly proves that such is not the case. Enjoy- 
ment is of such a character that one's greed for it usually 
far outruns his capacity. 

It is the duty of those who instruct the young to 
point out this divergence between appetite, or desire, 



THE FEELINGS 275 

and its gratification. A reasonable amount of the good 
things of hfe is infinitely better than an over-supply. 
An over-abundance clogs the appetite and defeats the 
very purpose for which it was acquired. This is the 
reason that temperance in all things is always more 
fruitful of enjoyment than over-indulgence. 

The Usefulness of Sensuous Feelings. — This phase 
has often been overlooked in discussion of the feelings 
though its importance cannot be questioned. There 
*is no doubt but that every feeling implanted in man 
has now or has had its useful and even its necessary 
qualities. We have seen that this is true of pain, hunger, 
thirst, and the like, and we may be sure that it is 
equally true of fear, terror, embarrassment, and similar 
feelings that are anything but pleasurable in their ex- 
periencing. That they were more essential to existence 
in a savage or primitive state than in a highly civilized 
age is obvious, but that fear, for instance, is a healthy 
deterrent from many dangers, especially in childhood 
and youth, is just as evident. 

Here again, it is the duty of the instructor to point 
out the danger of going beyond reasonable limitations, 
A wholesome fear is natural, right, and desirable. It 
has played an important part in the achievements of 
the race. But its control and subjection to reason is 
fully as important as the control of the appetites above 
alluded to. Excessive fear is physically, mentally, and 
morally deleterious to one's well-being. Senseless fear 
inevitably leads to cowardice. If there is a tendency 



276 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

to either condition it should be combated with courage. 
Any one in a state of abject fear loses the noble virtues 
that have been acquired by many generations of train- 
ing, is incapable of mental or moral effort, and sinks in 
a moment to the lowest depths of degradation. 

Embarrassment and bashfulness are the signs of 
modesty which is a most desirable virtue. In limited 
quantities they are beneficial, as they prevent certain 
types of forwardness and boldness that are unbecom- 
ing in the young; but indulged to excess, they become 
unmitigated evils as they prevent any advancement 
whatever and condemn their victims to perpetual 
obscurity and ignorance. In all cases where the feelings 
are concerned, temperance, control, and reason are the 
watchwords that lead to safety and to the highest 
achievements. 

The Effect of Attention upon Sensuous Feelings. — It 
is a well-known fact in the practical world that before 
an impression can be made upon the mind by any ex- 
ternal stimulus the attention must be gained. As to 
the amount of stimulus required for this purpose much 
depends upon the state of mind, the bodily condition, 
and the amount and kind of other business that the 
subject happens to be engaged in. If a person is very 
angry he is not likely to listen to an appeal for charity; 
if he is very hot or very cold he finds it difficult to give 
attention to a sermon. Salesmen will not attempt to 
sell a customer a bill of goods when he is tired, fretted, 
or hungry. They also know better than to interrupt 



THE FEELINGS 277 

when other important business transactions are in 
hand. 

The power to give or to withhold attention is the key 
to the cultivation, or the repression and control, of 
feelings of all kinds. Many people are tempted to give 
more attention than is meet to the gratification of 
appetite. Those that yield to this temptation become 
gluttons or voluptuaries. They lose their taste for 
simple or plain things and pander to unnatural cravings. 

Children need to be taught not to give too much at- 
tention to physical discomfort, such as is caused by a 
slight excess of heat or cold, and not to give full rein 
to expressions of pain in case of bodily injury. In fact 
if one will give attention to means of relief he will im- 
mediately find the pain less acute. 

There was in ancient Greece a school of philosophers 
called Stoics, who steadfastly trained themselves to en- 
dure pain without showing the least sign of suffering, 
likewise never to give any expressions of joy when 
experiencing pleasure. From the name of this school 
is derived our word "stoicism," meaning the habit of 
enduring pain without flinching. A reasonable displa}' 
of stoicism is admirable and if applied to the endur- 
ance of pain only, may be wholly desirable; but its 
application to pleasure very properly did not com- 
mend itself to mankind. The legitimate pleasures of 
life, taken as they come, are not too many, nor are they 
likely to be too keenly enjoyed. It is only when pleasure 
is sought as an end in life rather than as a means to 



278 THK TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

lighten the burdens of occupation that it becomes 
detrimental. 

Intellectual Feelings. — Under this head may be classed 
those feelings that are not mainly sensuous but are 
yet impersonal in their nature, such as the desire for 
knowledge, the contemplation of the beautiful, and the 
delight taken in that which is practical or useful. 

The desire for knowledge comes early in life and is 
retained well on into old age. The means for the grati- 
fication of this desire should be furnished about as 
rapidly as the demand for it will justify. The eager- 
ness of children for knowledge is shown by their eternal 
questioning, when not repressed, and by their tireless 
investigations of every object within reach. Until they 
have learned to read they have only two means of ac- 
quiring knowledge, first by being told and second by 
discovering for themselves. Hence the great importance 
of giving heed to all their questionings and to supply- 
ing them with an abundance of materials for investi- 
gations; but perhaps enough has been said about this 
elsewhere. 

The love of the beautiful should likewise be cultivated 
from its inception, and its indulgence in nature at least 
may be freely permitted. The intellectual feelings differ 
from the sensuous in that they are much less likely 
to be indulged in to excess or to lead to injury. The 
only common exception to this general rule is the love 
for artificial beauty as expressed in fine clothes and per- 
sonal adornments. This kind of vanity unless carried 



THE FEELINGS 279 

to an extreme is usually looked upon as more foolish 
than wicked. 

Love of the beautiful as represented in the highest 
forms of art, sculpture, painting, music, architecture, the 
drama, is much the same as the love of the beautiful 
in nature, and the cultivated mind finds a high degree 
of pleasure in its contemplation. To cultivate a taste 
for art in its best forms should be a part of the educa- 
tion of every individual. All schools should be equipped 
with the best representations of works of art that can be 
obtained, and these should be explained from time to 
time both as to their origin and their meaning. If, 
after having been liberally taught concerning the lead- 
ing works of art, one can visit the great galleries of the 
world and see the originals the sacrifice of time and ex- 
pense will be amply repaid. 

The pleasure derived from the practical may be less 
keen but is scarcely less satisfying than is the love 
of the beautiful. Deep satisfaction is likely to be ex- 
perienced from the construction of almost any kind 
of practical contrivance and this satisfaction is found 
apart from any money value that may or may not at- 
tach thereto. A boy takes vast delight in fashioning 
a top out of a spool. A little girl is equally pleased when 
she constructs a hat for her doll, and it would be a dull 
grown-up who would not take some pride in turning 
out a creditable piece of work even though it were 
nothing more remarkable than a drinking trough. The 
highest form, perhaps, of intellectual feeling manifests 



28o THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

itself in the desire to produce something of real worth 
in the line of the practical, the beautiful, the senti- 
mental, or the instructive. This desire in its highest 
form becomes a passion that overtops every considera- 
tion in life. To it we are indebted for many of the finest 
examples of painting, sculpture, architecture, and music. 
The motive for such production is neither a desire for 
fame nor for pecuniary gain, though both of these may 
result incidentally; it lies rather in the laudable desire 
to create something that shall be lasting and that shall 
be held in esteem for its intrinsic worth. 

Another fine example of what may grow out of in- 
tellectual feeling is found in modern science. The de- 
sire to discover truth and to add to the world's store 
of knowledge grows into a powerful incentive to labor 
as is evidenced by the fact that there are no more per- 
sistent or determined toilers than the scientists. Like 
the artists these men pay but little attention to finan- 
cial profits. The discoverer of anaesthesia conferred a 
priceless boon upon mankind, but was not concerned 
when his discovery failed to bring wealth with it. Most 
of the great discoveries in astronomy, chemistry, medi- 
cine, and in fact all lines of science have been of this 
unselfish kind, they have been sought and found to 
satisfy the thirst for knowledge. 

Associated Feelings 

These are the feelings that have to do with our fellow 
men and with the Deity, and are therefore of a personal 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 281 

nature. They are what are popularly known as the 
emotions. They differ from those that have just been 
described as intellectual in that they are less due to 
abstract thought and more to impulse and to social 
environment. It requires patient investigation and 
much time for calm and quiet thinking to make ad- 
vancement along scientific lines, but these factors are 
not so much required for the arousement or the exer- 
cise of admiration, love, hate, or even revenge. These 
and others of their kind are often engendered in a flash, 
appearing suddenly in sufiicient power to take complete 
possession of the person involved. If they are of a 
harmful nature, tending to injustice or injury, calm 
thinking and reasoning is their best antidote; if they 
are right and beneficial, reflection may temper their 
violence but will serve to establish their hold and in- 
sure them an abiding place. 

Personal feelings may be divided into three classes, 
namely: social, moral, and religious. The line of de- 
marcation is not always distinct but for the most part 
the grouping is sufficiently clear to make it helpful 
in our study. 

Social Feelings. — Alan like many other animals is 
gregarious by nature. Frequent contact with his fel- 
lows is necessary both to his happiness and to the 
development of his powers. Without it there could be 
no emulation or friendly rivalry, the two leading in- 
centives to achievement. Also, without it there would 
be no env}% jealousy, hatred, murder. Society is re- 



282 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

sponsible for all the evils of humanity as well as for all 
the good, and the higher the degree of civilization the 
more complicated and entangled becomes the web of 
social unity and consequently the sharper and fiercer 
grows the battle between good and evil. 

The leading emotions that are responsible for the 
social fabric in all its extensions and ramifications are, 
I. Family ties, the love of parents for their offspring, 
the dependence of the offspring upon their parents 
and later their sense of obligation to them, and the feel- 
ing of kinship between blood relations. 2. The feelings 
of pleasure and satisfaction derived from friendship 
with those who are not immediate kinsfolk. This 
group which is numerous finds its outlet in the various 
functions of "society," receptions, banquets, enter- 
tainments, fairs and what not. 3. The desire to trans- 
act business with one's fellows, to trade, to barter, to 
get gain, to extend one's operations in all directions 
as far as possible. 4. The passion to bear rule, to have 
a share in the making and executing of the laws, to 
occupy the most prominent places, to enjoy the praise 
and plaudits of those less exalted. 5. The feeling of 
patriotism. This includes love of home, of community, 
of state and nation, respect for those in authority, pride 
in the achievements of one's fellow countrymen, and a 
willingness to sacrifice one's personal interests for the 
general good. As these are all of high importance to 
the welfare of the body politic it becomes a ]:)art of the 
teacher's business to have a clear understanding of 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS " 283 

them both in thought and in practice. Hence it is well 
to consider them more in detail. 

The Family Life. — It is agreed by all who make a 
study of economic conditions that a good, strong, 
wholesome family life and government, believed in and 
practiced generally throughout the country, is the foun- 
dation of all government and is the chief bulwark of 
society. WHiatever therefore affects the family hfe 
of the nation for its weal or woe is of \'ital importance 
to the nation itself. 

The first essential towards good citizenship, then, 
is to impress upon children the duties they owe to 
parents: love, respect, and obedience to parental 
authority. Filial piety is to a certain extent natural 
and spontaneous, but none the less it needs the most 
careful nurturing in both the home and the school. 
There are many loose ideas concerning the amount and 
kind of control parents should exercise over their 
children, and these ideas are promulgated by persons 
who have a ver\' poor conception of what training 
really is. They mistake harshness for proper atten- 
tion, and neglect for gentleness. 

]Many parents whose souls revolted at the harsh 
punishments of a past generation would be surprised 
and confounded if confronted with the truth that their 
gross neglect to train their children to obedience and 
to reverence authority is infinitely more cruel than the 
harshness of their ancestors. It should be kept in mind 
that the fact of training is more important than the 



284 ■ THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

method of training. If any parent or teacher finds him- 
self so constituted that he must use either gentle means 
or no means at all, and if he also discovers that the 
gentle means are not sufficient to enforce his teachings, 
he should give up the idea of parenthood or of teach- 
ing, as the worst evils are likely to result both to the 
children themselves and to society. 

The sense of obligation to parents should be most care- 
fully nurtured in children, and the teacher has the van- 
tage point for this rather than the parents as his ad- 
vocacy could not be attributed to personal motives 
while that of the parents might. Any disrespectful 
allusion to parents should not go unnoticed, but whether 
any such are caught or not, the proper instruction should 
not fail of being given. Both in history and literature 
there are many fine examples of filial respect and de- 
votion and these should be used from time to time 
through all the grades. 

llie feeling of brotherly kindness is likewise one to 
be cherished. In certain rural communities this feeling 
becomes too narrow, confining itself to the members 
of one's own immediate family and looking upon all 
others as outsiders toward whom there are no obliga- 
tions of helpfulness. The obligations of kinship doubt- 
less come first, but brotherly kindness should by no 
means be so limited. Those persons are most Christ- 
like whose ready sympathies extend to all men of what- 
soever race or religion yet without losing any of the ten- 
derness and helpfulness due to kinsfolk and neighbors. 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 285 

Friendship Feelings. — Next to the ties of family and 
of blood the holiest bond among mortals is that of 
personal friendship. For one man to say of another 
"he is my friend," is to speak the last word of intimacy 
and helpfulness, and such a claim is recognized every- 
where as sacred. To come to the highest fruition it 
should be between persons of similar tastes and condi- 
tions and it must have no commercial value, must not 
be traded, bartered or presumed upon ; it must be wholly 
unselfish. Moreover, outside of family ties, a close 
personal friendship is permissible only between persons 
of the same sex. 

The finest example of personal friendship in history 
or literature is that between David and Jonathan in 
which the latter comes very near to exemplifying the 
highest conceivable type of nobility of character. Per- 
haps the next best known example is the friendship of 
Damon and Pythias; but there are many other well 
authenticated cases in history that are beautiful in 
themselves and possess a high value as examples to be 
used by the teacher. 

In the encouragement of personal friendships the 
same caution should be observed as in brotherly kind- 
ness, namely, to guard against exclusiveness. If one 
has a special friend for whom he would sacrifice every- 
thing, even to life itself, that fact should not interfere 
with his having a host of other friends for whom he 
would sacrifice something and who would sacrifice 
something for him. This means that one should not 



286 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

habitually withdraw himself from the society of the 
many for the sake of enjoying the exclusive com- 
panionship of one who is particularly dear. 

Feelings that Lead to Business Relations. — The joy 
of transacting business with one's fellows is very keen 
in some individuals and is doubtless in greater or less 
degree universal. In rather rare instances the desire 
to trade for the sake of outwitting one's opponent and 
of obtaining possession of articles that appeal to one's 
cupidity becomes a consuming passion and leads to 
much that is deplorable. This trait may appear very 
early in life and if soon discovered should not be difficult 
to cure. If a boy is devoting his energies to trading 
with his fellows, those energies must be turned into 
other channels and some wholesome instruction given 
to offset any wrong impressions he may have ac- 
quired. 

The principles of fair dealing, of looking out for the 
rights of the other fellow in the trade, of never deceiv- 
ing a customer or palming off a bogus or an inferior 
article, are more attractive and more certainly re- 
munerative in the long run than any of the forms of 
dishonesty. These principles should be taught in all 
schools with a vigor and with a persistence that will 
not only produce a lasting impression but will result 
in character that will stand the stress and the strain 
of actual practice in after years and through life. 

The Passion for Ruling. — A limited number of people 
seem to be natural-born leaders. In school life they are 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 287 

the persons that propose the games to be played and 
the rules that shall govern them. They appear to 
see at a glance what should be done and take a keen 
pleasure in doing it or telling others to do it and over- 
seeing them. If an emergency arises they are quick to 
see what should be done; if trouble occurs they know 
how to avoid it or to remedy it. 

The highest type of leadership is found in those who 
have what is called "initiative," the power to start 
things, to think of something new. There are many 
who can carry out plans already made but who cannot 
make them. Such make good assistants though they 
may be helpless when it comes to originating plans or 
movements. The great mass of human beings are 
wanting in leadership either of the higher type where 
initiative is in evidence, or of the inferior sort that can 
carry out plans that others make for them. They are 
willing to be led, and instinctively look to those who 
have the power to think and to command. 

Every one should have an opportunity to cultivate 
whatever spirit of leadership there is in him and the 
public school is an excellent place for this cultivation. 
The playground is unsurpassed as a means for testing 
the qualities of boys and girls. Here conventionality 
is lacking and every one may put his powers to the test. 
Play offers an outlet for budding genius of almost any 
sort and there is no place where freedom of thought and 
expression is more untrammeled. The boy or girl who 
fails to get his or her share of bringing up on the play- 



288 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

ground misses one of the most valuable factors that 
can be supplied in training for life. 

But the school room should have its part also in this 
important work. The principles of government should 
be thoroughly taught and as many of them put into 
practice as the routine of school will permit. When 
our schools are based upon a broader plan than they 
now are, when work in the shop and in the field shall 
have the attention that their importance in child- 
training justifies, then there will be a much better op- 
portunity for boys and girls to exercise any talents they 
may have for legislating and bearing rule. A case in 
point is the George Junior Republic, an institution 
where boys and girls between the ages of fourteen and 
twenty-one both make and administer all rules for 
conduct, electing officers from their own number by 
ballot. In this admirable institution ever>^ one must 
earn his own living and at the same time contribute to 
the fund which procures him his schooling. 

If young people everywhere could have a similar 
opportunity to learn the practice as well as the theory 
of government and early in life learn the value of 
honesty and uprightness in public matters, we should 
have less occasion for the muckraker in literature and 
the grafter in politics. We are just finding out that in 
a republic the art of government should be a part of 
every one's education, that the time to acquire it is in 
youth and the way by actual practice. 

Patriotic Feelings. — Patriotism is always classed among 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 289 

the highest and noblest virtues. It is considered to 
be the bounden duty of every man to be loyal to his 
country, to contribute of his substance to her needs, 
to stand up for her laws and customs, to promote her 
welfare by act and deed, and to defend her when called 
upon even to the sacrifice of life itself. The extreme 
opposite of patriotism is sho^vn when a person betrays 
his country, turns against it, joins its enemies or gives 
them aid or comfort. Such a one is "branded" as a 
"traitor," is looked upon with the deepest execration, 
and is visited with the severest punishment that the 
laws provide. 

Real patriotism means more than the common slack 
practice of the virtue would lead one to suppose. A 
considerable number of people regard themselves as 
patriotic yet shirk their duties as citizens. A loyal 
subject should serve his country in whatever capacity 
he may be called upon, whether in contributing of his 
means to its support or in rendering personal service 
in some office of trust. Men are usually very ready to 
render the latter service when it offers inducement in 
the way of salary, position, and honor, but when it 
comes to paying taxes or the duties imposed by the 
ofhcer of customs they are not so willing. 

If the patriotism of every citizen were measured by 
his faithfulness in giving his rightful amount of property 
for taxation and otherwise performing every pubhc 
duty devolving upon him, very many would be found 
wanting. Yet that it would be infinitely better for the 
19 



290 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

whole country if every one would bear his rightful 
share of her burdens no one can deny or doubt. The 
country is always seeking to discover a way whereby 
an equal distribution of taxes shall be assured, but up 
to the present we are far from having reached that 
desirable condition. 

The teachers of the country have a great and enviable 
duty to perform in giving such instruction as will lay 
a broad and lasting foundation for a love of country 
that will cheerfully render every service that can be 
rightfully required. We need a patriotism that will 
take delight in promoting the public welfare but at 
the same time will brook not the least dishonesty in 
the handling of public funds; that will be more zealous 
for a high standard of purity in the transaction of the 
public business than for party victory at the polls; 
that in case of need will offer more, rather than strive 
to give less, than the law demands of money or service ; 
that will rejoice in every triumph of right over wrong 
in public affairs whether at the moment it seems to be 
in the interest of "good business" or otherwise; in 
short, a patriotism that is unselfish and is active in all 
movements that have for their object the greatest good 
to the greatest number. 

Patriotism is taught by song and story and by the 
celebration of national holidays; by paying tribute to 
the deeds of our heroes living and dead; by the exal- 
tation of soldier, sailor or citizen who sacrifices himself 
upon his country's altar. No child should be allowed 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 291 

to pass through school without having studied civil 
government and the history of his country, not so 
much for their enlightenment as for their influence upon 
character. And as previously suggested, actual practice 
should go hand in hand with whatever knowledge is 
instilled into the mind. 

So many duties devolve upon the schools that some 
of them are pretty sure to be either slighted or wholly 
neglected, and from appearances patriotism does not 
receive the attention that it should; besides, many boys 
are not in school at the very time of life when such in- 
struction would be most suitable. The need is so ap- 
parent that certain organizations have been effected 
outside of school life largely for the purpose of implant- 
ing a broader and more practical patriotism in the 
minds of boys. The Boy Scouts and the World Scouts 
are examples of these. 

Moral Feelings. — Those that obviously come under 
this head are honesty, truthfulness, fairness, justice, 
frankness, honor, purity of character, and their oppo- 
sites, cheating, lying, deceiving, gambling, oppression, 
and impurity of every kind and character. Generosity, 
kindness, neighborly helpfulness and their opposites 
have moral bearings but are perhaps more properly 
understood as social feelings. If, however, the term 
moral feelings embraces all that carry with them obliga- 
tion to our fellow men these latter must be included. 

The basis for instruction in this class of feelings lies 
in the formation of right ideals of citizenship, of man- 



292 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

hood, and of womanhood. We must have high ideals, 
else we shall have nothing worthy at which to aim, and 
unless there is something definite for which to strive 
we shall get nowhere. Every one must have this ideal 
of what a statesman should be, a lawyer, a merchant, 
a farmer, a plain citizen, and these ideals should be of 
such a kind that everything they are and everything 
they do may be justified by the strictest rules of char- 
acter and conduct. 

Every one forms his ideals according to the standards 
that are set before him and according to the knowledge 
and wisdom he possesses. Too frequently in the homes 
the standards of honesty and truthfulness are not of a 
high order, and as a consequence no right ideals can be 
formed from them. In all such cases the schools must 
act as a corrective, and in place of low standards and 
wrong ideals set up those that are worthy. How can 
this be done? 

Pupils of the grammar grades should have frequent 
opportunity for judging conduct and for expressing their 
approval or disapproval; and this conduct should ema- 
nate from those who are approximately their equals in 
age and advancement. It will not be well for a time 
at least for them to pass judgment upon the conduct of 
those who are beyond them in age or station. Some 
form of self government will afford the best opportunity 
for this work. 

Religious Feelings. — One of the peculiarities that 
serve to distinguish man from the lower animals is his 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 293 

tendency to religion. Man has been defined as a reli- 
gious animal. The feehng that there is a Higher Power 
to whom man is indebted for his existence and to whom 
he is under obHgation for life here and hereafter appears 
to be universal. Belief in the immortality of the soul is 
also well nigh universal. Upon these feelings and be- 
liefs are founded the various religions of the world. 

Perhaps the most basal of all is the feeling of adora- 
tion. Man instinctively desires to worship a Supreme 
Being. He has a feeling of helplessness amidst a 
world of mysteries and powers beyond his control, and 
consequently he recognizes the need of an alliance with 
the great Controller of all things, One who shall be 
able to protect and preserve him both in this life and 
in the life to come. 

Man's idea of what God is and his relation to earthly 
creatures varies greatly from the vaguest notions of 
the savage to the most enlightened conceptions of the 
philosopher and scholar; and his manner of worshiping 
God and imploring his aid differ quite as decidedly as 
his conceptions of what God is. Out of these varying 
conceptions have grown the many forms of religion 
that are now known and practiced by the human race. 

Since the feelings of awe, reverence, and wholesome 
fear are common to all races and religions, they may be 
and should be taught or encouraged in all schools. We 
stand in awe of the mystery of life, of death, of what 
becomes of the spirit of man, of the forces of nature, 
of the mighty power that moves the stars and guides 



294 THE. TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the planets in their course. Reverence for "the Hand 
that made us" is becoming in both old and young, and 
should be cultivated, while irreverence and scoffing 
at that which is Divine is rightly held in abhorrence by 
all sane minded people. 

Beyond these primal virtues it may not be wise for 
the public schools to go. In our country every one is 
permitted to practice whatever form of religion he 
may choose (providing no cruel rites or indecent prac- 
tices are introduced under the guise of religion), and 
may worship God in whatever way his conscience re- 
quires. As there are many different organizations 
representing the Christian religion, each one having its 
own cherished doctrines, the sacredness of which must 
be respected, and as all other religions are entitled to 
equal rights and privileges with the Christian religion, 
it therefore becofhes necessary in the public schools 
to avoid all instruction that would be either for or 
against any particular form or system of religion. 

While this is clearly obvious there could scarcely be 
any valid objections raised to the teaching of any par- 
ticular faith where all the patrons of the school were 
agreed upon it and desired it, and in fact in many pub- 
lic schools some simple forms of the Christian religion 
are observed where a large majority are either actually 
or nominally of that faith. On the same terms the use 
of the Bible as a means of worship or of teaching re- 
ligion is prohibited or permitted. Considered purely 
as literature it might be offered as an elective study 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 295 

in the higher grades of the pubhc schools, but could 
scarcely be required even then on account of the preju- 
dice that would be likely to exist. 

It is needless to say that all sects, systems and faiths 
may have their own schools and teach their doctrines 
to their heart's content so long as they do not interfere 
with or encroach upon the rights and duties of others. 
It is the policy of the country that all such schools shall 
be considered "private" and shall have no money for 
their support appropriated from public funds neither 
shall their owners and patrons be exempt from taxation 
for the support of the public schools. 

All this is pertinent to the subject when we consider 
how great a part religious sentiment plays in the social 
and political as well as in the religious life of our country. 
It is necessary for the teacher to know the bounds 
and limitations of instruction so that he may not trans- 
gress them. That they are being constantly trespassed 
upon no one can deny; that they need to be guarded 
with the utmost diligence is equally beyond question. 

Aside from the forms and ceremonies of religion 
there are certain practical teachings found in the Bible 
that no one can object to whatever his faith and that 
should be universally taught since by them some of 
the best emotions that flesh is heir to can be cultivated. 
How can brotherly kindness be better expressed than 
in that unequivocal commandment "Thou shalt love 
thy neighbor as thyself?" The dignity and grandeur 
of this simple statement make a deep impression upon 



296 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the mind while the value of the underlying principle 
to the human race is beyond cavil. Similar!}- great 
both in meaning and expression is that other law of 
kindness, known as the "Golden Rule": "WTiatsoever 
ye would that men should do unto you, do ye even so 
unto them." Any religion that repudiates such teach- 
ings as these would not be worthy of respect in this 
enlightened age. 

A Further Word About Feelings in General. — The tre- 
mendous influence of feeling upon human action is not 
suihciently understood. Men think their actions are 
governed by reason when they are really impelled by 
feeling. We know how difhcult it is to persuade a 
person to act according to reason when his feelings urge 
him to an opposite course; and we know equally well 
how necessary it is to arouse certain feelings in the minds 
of those whom we wish to influence. Again, we observe 
how smoothly things go and what rapid progress is 
made when desire and reason are in accord; but how 
different the case when they point in opposite directions. 

Feelings as Incentives to Action. — Most of the work 
of the world that is known as "common labor" and is 
paid for by the day or by the week or by the piece is 
done from a feeling of necessity. The dread of hunger 
or cold or nakedness drives men to work. The fear of 
arrest and imprisonment deters the evilly inclined 
from violence and crime. Go a step higher up in the 
social scale and we see men driven to work, some by the 
desire for riches, others for influence, power, position. 



ASSOCIATED FEELINGS 297 

The very highest deeds of daring or of sacrifice have their 
roots in feeling. Men will risk their lives in mortal 
combat to avoid the mere implication of suspicion upon 
their honor; they will face death upon the battlefield 
for the love of country; they will leave friends and 
home and native land and endure hardships unspeak- 
able for "sweet rehgion's sake." 

In spite of laws, of courts, of jails, of penitentiaries, 
of gallows or electric chairs, in spite of the disgrace 
that accompanies detection and the infamy of being 
branded criminals, men, for the sake of revenge, for 
paltry riches or for fleshly lust, will commit the most 
dastardly crimes against the property, the virtue, the 
lives of their fellow beings. In short as the Good are 
impelled to the noblest deeds of heroism by "right" 
feelings, so the Bad are led on into the worst acts of 
infamy by "wrong" feelings. 

Seeing that these things are indisputably true, how 
important it is that feelings should have a place in the 
curriculum of instruction in all schools. All virtues, 
such as love, honor, chastity, are as their names im- 
ply, but right feelings, which expressed in action pro- 
mote peace, good-will, and righteousness upon the 
earth; while vice consists in feelings gone astray, which, 
likewise expressing themselves in action bring about 
the disorder of society. Furthermore faith, courage, 
hope, and all the emotions that are holy tend to the 
promotion of health and happiness; while envy, fear, 
hate, despondency, and all the unholy passions inju- 



298 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

riously affect the circulation of the blood, interfere with 
the secretion of the glands, and engender poisons in the 
system. 

Right feelings are easily induced in the young, and 
these feelings should be given an opportunity to express 
themselves in action as often as possible so that they 
may early resolve themselves into habits of life; they 
should be encouraged by every form of precept and ex- 
ample that is known to, or can be contrived by, teachers 
and parents. Children should be fully instructed as 
to the evil effects that are certain to follow the in- 
dulgence of anger, hatred, revenge, and all evil passions. 
Not until all has been said that ought to be said against 
wrong and in favor of right, and all done that can be 
done to overcome evil with good, may the teacher be 
acquitted of responsibility in the conduct of his pupils 
not only while they are under his care but as long as 
they shall live. The penitentiaries would be less crowded 
and the sorrow of the world would be less extensive 
if all teachers were faithful to warn their pupils against 
vice and give them instruction and practice in virtue. 
The evil doings of the wicked are properly laid at the 
doors of parents and teachers while the good deeds of 
those who were trained into righteousness are placed 
to their lasting credit. 



CHAPTER XVII 
THE WILL 

MINOR ACTIVITIES 

It has long been customary to study the mind un- 
der three more or less distinctive phases of its func- 
tions, namely, Thought, Feeling and Will. The term 
"Thought" as thus presented includes all the so-called 
"faculties" of the mind, sensation, perception, mem- 
ory, imagination, and thinking in its more technical 
sense; the meaning of the word "Feeling" has been de- 
fined in the preceding chapter and is understood here 
in its broadest sense; it remains to explain what is 
meant by "Will." Evidently, since the whole mind 
of man is included in these three terms, all mental or 
physical, or physico-mental activities that do not come 
under the first two must belong to the third. 

Stated in this broad fashion, every act that requires 
mental or physical energ}^ whether that energy is con- 
sciously exerted or not, comes under the head of will. 
According to the common understanding of its mean- 
ing the term \\dll is applied to those actions and inactions 
that are decided upon or chosen to be performed or not 
performed. For example, a person may decide to rise 
at a certain hour in the morning and the act follows 

299 



300 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the decision; or he ma}' decide that he \vi\\ not rise at 
that hour and inaction results; the one is as much a 
case of "wilhng" as the other, also the latter is an 
"act" as well as the former. Such acts are called 
voluntary because having once been taken into con- 
sideration they can neither be performed nor inhibited 
without the consent and determination of the mind. 

Now there are many activities of the body that are 
not of this t}^e. Breathing is an example. Here is a 
physical activity that is carried on coordinately with 
life, and one that requires considerable energy, yet is 
not the result of deliberation or determination. It 
began and was well established long before conscious- 
ness appeared and therefore before choice could have 
anything to do with it. The pulsation of the heart, 
the circulation of the blood, the partaking of food, lis 
digestion and assimilation, and many other operations 
of the body are involuntary, yet they are closely re- 
lated and in many respects similar to voluntary acts; 
consequently they come under the head of Will. 

The Divisions of the Minor Activities. — All acts that 
are of a physical rather than an intellectual nature are 
here classed as Minor Activities. These are subdivided 
into Reflex, Instinctive and Impulsive. All these are 
similar to each other and the lines between them can- 
not be sharply dra\\Ti, yet there are enough of each class 
that are quite distinct from the others to make their 
separate study profitable. 

Reflex Actions. — When the end of a sensory nerve 



THE WILL 301 

has come in contact with a stimulus a report of the con- 
tact is flashed along the nerve to the nearest reflex 
center and is immediately flashed back along a motor 
nerve to the muscles that protect, control, or regulate 
the part affected by the stimulus, or if not to the part 
affected to some other part that coordinates with it. 
Thus, when we are walking in the dark and stub the 
right foot a message corresponding in vigor to the force 
of the blow is sent to the spinal cord and is reflected 
without loss along a motor nerve to the muscles of the 
left leg, causing that member to go into violent action 
resulting in a leap that saves the body from falling. In 
such a case the mind is conscious of the whole per- 
formance but only from the standpoint of a spectator; 
it had no part in the happenings. The whole thing 
was over before the mind had time to act. 

All the organic functionings of the body are of the 
reflex type of actions. When the stomach is empty 
its muscles and glands are at rest, but when food en- 
ters they spring into activity and the operation of 
digestion is begun and carried on. Similarly the heart 
acts from the stimulus of blood, the lungs from air, and 
so in all the internal processes of the body there is an 
exciting cause and a corresponding reaction. 

Reflex actions are of two kinds, organic and ac- 
quired. All the internal processes of the body from the 
beginning of growth to the period of decay belong to 
the former. These processes are multitudinous in 
number and have a tendency to act involuntarily 



302 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

though some of them may be partially controlled or 
regulated by the will. Thus, we can temporarily regulate 
or modify the breathing, to a certain extent also the 
hours of sleeping and waking, the times for eating and 
drinking, etc. 

It is well known to science, and the knowledge should 
be made universal, that the condition of the mind has 
much to do with the organic processes of the body. 
Grief, anger, bitterness of mind, disappointment, malice, 
despair, all emotions that are mentally unwholesome, 
are likewise physically unwholesome, and interfere with 
and derange the functions of the bodily organs; thus 
fear will make the mouth dry, cause the flesh to creep 
and the hair to "stand on end." 

Acquired reflex actions are those that are learned, 
perhaps with the utmost care and attention and with 
long practice, as walking, running, leaping, the move- 
ments of the fingers in piano playing, and many others. 
The power man has of turning a great number of rou- 
tine and necessary operations over to sub-conscious 
processes is an exceedingly valuable one. Were it not 
for this we should be constantly having to give our 
attention to mechanical operations of the body and 
thus have our minds diverted from important matters 
that really require attention and thought. 

Instinctive Actions are those that are prompted from 
purely physiological conditions yet are gone about and 
carried on with as much care, attention, and skill as 
though they were wholly voluntary. Often they are 



THE WILL 303 

preceded by a mental state that anticipates the action 
for a considerable time. Instinct may be defined as a 
tendency to action implanted either by Nature from 
the beginning or b}^ the custom of many preceding 
generations of ancestors. It is readily observable in 
plants. Who has not noticed that trees will grow much 
taller in a cove than will the same species on the up- 
land? It is their instinct to seek the light that makes 
them stretch their tops so high. Every one who has 
had the care of flowers has remarked their tendency to 
turn toward the sun and follow it in its course. 

Instinctive actions are most in evidence in the lower 
animals as they seem to be guided almost wholly by 
them. The tendency of young animals to seek their 
food, to recognize the calls of their kind, to hide or flee 
in time of danger are too well known to need more than 
passing mention. Each kind of bird or beast has its 
own peculiar set of instincts according to its manner of 
life. Most forms of life, either plant or animal, have 
three great objects for which to strive with a suitable 
set of instincts for each. These three objects are first, 
to secure a living, second to avoid danger and third, 
to reproduce their kind. The variety of instincts that 
cluster about these three objects furnish a vast number 
of highly interesting phenomena to the thoughtful 
observer. 

Instinct is doubtless most nearly perfect in low orders 
of life. The worm lives its narrow prescribed life with- 
out gaining anything from experience or training. Com- 



304 THE TKAININC; OF CHILDREN 

ing higher up, whether practice makes the bee any more 
expert in gathering honey is doubtful. Its services are 
probably as valuable the first w^eek as the second or tenth. 
The cat is supposed to teach her kittens the art of mous- 
ing, and the play of puppies and young foxes appears 
to be a training for their adult life; but this training 
is merely supplemental to the instinct already existent. 
As for the instinct for avoiding danger, for self pro- 
tection and defense, the ways and means provided by Na- 
ture are so many and so varied that they may scarcely 
be touched upon here. These contrivances and appli- 
ances, from the ink bag of the squid to the branch- 
ing antlers of the noble stag, are among the wonders of 
creation. 

The instinct for reproduction is the one that is com- 
mon to all forms of life whether plant or animal and 
is the one great duty that every created thing owes to 
the world. Not ever}^ individual of every species of life 
is endowed with the means of taking a prominent part 
in the reproduction of its kind, nevertheless the means 
are usually abundant. Occasionally there are individual 
plants that are incapable of producing either pollen 
or seed but the exception is too infrequent to endanger 
the perpetuation of the race. Among bees and ants 
perpetuation is left to a very few males and females, 
the great body of the tribe being neuters. These do 
their part by supporting the kings and queens and in 
providing food and shelter for the young. 

Human instincts while numerous are not so much 



THE WILL 305 

in evidence nor so easily traced as in the lower orders 
of life. The conventionalities of society and the higher 
reign of reason have put even the strongest instincts 
more or less in the background. For example the in- 
stinct to secure a living is so far beneath the crust of 
stern necessity on the one hand or of a never sleeping 
passion to acquire wealth on the other that we can 
scarcely be sure that it plays any part in man's com- 
mercial activities. 

Mother love in many of the lower animals is very 
strong so long as the progeny requires the mother's 
care but appears practically to cease at the end of 
that period. It is doubtful if the mother brute even 
recognizes her child as hers for more than a few days 
or weeks after the end of the care-taking period. The 
human mother love lasts with little diminution through 
life and, while there may be just as much instinct in it 
in the beginning, there is so much to fear, to hope for, 
and to rely upon that her affection even at the start 
far outruns the bounds of instinct. 

Similar to the above is the human instinct of self- 
preservation. There is no doubt but that the instinct 
is there and holds sway up to a certain point but just 
where it begins to be lost in the onrush of other m^otives 
it is difficult to tell. Man's actions are governed, even 
where life is concerned by love, hate, pride, revenge, fear 
and other emotions. It is quite likely that human in- 
stincts would quickly return to their original power if the 
higher motives of reason and society were taken away. 
20 



3o6 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

Instinctive actions are much more noticeable in 
children than in adults for the reason that they have 
not yet learned to reason, are not hampered by the 
conventionalities of society, and have not yet acquired 
habits that would seriously obstruct hereditary traits. 
Those most in evidence are anger, fear, affection, jeal- 
ousy, imitation, and acquisitiveness. Laughter is 
partly reflex but is also instinctive. Play at the begin- 
ning and for several years thereafter is wholly instinc- 
tive. These are seen in varying degrees of prominence 
in different individuals but in normal children are 
certain to be present in some degree. 

Impulsive Actions. — According to common usage the 
word Impulse means some vague or sudden feeling 
within that prompts to immediate outward action. 
An impulsive person is one who is prone to act -without 
reflection or premeditation. To act upon impulse is 
the opposite of acting from deliberation. There are 
other and more intricate meanings used by many writ- 
ers on psychology but the ordinary meaning will be 
the most profitable to consider here. 

Taken in its common usage the idea is still very closely 
connected with instinctive action as the latter is urged 
on by some impelling force that is not the result of 
choice or deliberation. A bird in building its first nest 
probably has no definite idea of the end, yet it works 
with as much skill as though it had had previous train- 
ing and experience and with as much precision as though 
it had definite knowledge of the ultimate purpose. 



THE WILL 307 

Moreover each individual is affected in the same way 
as every other individual of its class and race. This is 
instinct. Impulse properly so called is not so. There 
is not so much certainty in the stimulus and a much 
greater variety among individuals in the resulting ac- 
tion. 

Types of Impulse. — When one unexpectedly hears a 
clap of thunder and glances about to ascertain the 
point, direction, and probable violence of any storm 
that thus threatens; when one hears a scream of pain 
or fright and dashes in its direction to render aid; when a 
person is overwrought and feels strongly like sinking 
down or screaming or flying from all responsibility, 
these are impulses. We may now examine each in- 
stance separately determining if we can its origin and 
manner of working. 

In the case of the clap of thunder there is no previous 
preparation either physiological or mental. The body 
is in its usual state of health and vigor, the mind is en- 
gaged in attending to its ordinary duties when it is 
startled by the sudden roar which it instantly recog- 
nizes. The glancing for direction and other details 
is involuntary, there is no waiting to deliberate whether 
it were better to look first and make preparations after- 
wards or to make certain preparations first and look 
afterwards. Immediately following the glance the 
mind takes in the situation and assumes control and any 
succeeding actions are the result of more or less de- 
liberation. 



3o8 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

The second instance is similar to the first except that 
it contains a personal element, and the circumstances 
and conditions of this phase of the cr\' will greatly 
modify the effect upon the hearer. Thus if one were in a 
strange countr>^ where he knew no one and was without 
resources he w^ould be affected and startled, but would 
probably do nothing; if he were in a crowd of his own 
countrymen and heard the cry and did not recognize 
the voice he would be aroused and would hasten to 
discover the cause and render assistance if needed; if 
he were in his own house and recognized the voice as 
that of his own child he would be struck as by a blow, 
his heart would almost stop beating, he would rush at 
once to the rescue. In each case after the first im- 
mediate impulse, whether acted upon or resisted, de- 
liberative thought comes to take the place of impulse. 

The third case differs from the other two in that the 
stimulus is from within rather than from without and a 
physiological condition is involved. The person con- 
cerned has become over-wearied or his nerves over- 
wTought and his attention is brought to bear upon him- 
self, and his suffering discovered to be so acute, he wants 
either to succumb or to run away from it. His natural 
instinct is for immediate relief. 

These cases differ alike from instinct in that their 
causes lie in accidents and not in prearranged physio- 
logical or environmental conditions. The situations 
that brought on the tendency to act impulsively came 
on suddenly and were wholly unexpected, as even 



THE WILL 309 

in the third case where the stimulus was within; al- 
though the tenseness that brings the final crash is 
some time in gathering, its work of preparation is below 
the surface of consciousness, and its dawning upon 
consciousness comes almost with the same shock as 
in the other cases. For these reasons they cannot be 
classed as instincts. 

They are not reflex since they are neither intra- 
organic nor the result of habit ; and finally they are not 
deliberative since but one course of action was open 
in the way of responding to the stimulus. They are 
simply the result of an impelling force that, while great 
enough, offered but one outlet, hence the term "im- 
pulsive action." 

Some psychologists classify the various actions that 
come under this h'ead according to the mental power 
which is mainly involved. Thus some are due to sen- 
sation and are classed sensational, and similarly some 
are perceptional and some imaginative. To follow each 
of these up with illustrations and explanations would 
lead deeper into psychologic analysis than is designed 
in this work. They are merely mentioned here so that 
the learner may expect them in his further researches. 

The Significance of the Minor Activities to the Teacher. — 
It is necessary for the teacher to study all actions that 
have any bearing upon mental or moral life; and these 
include all except those that are purely physiological 
and pertain solely to the mechanism of the body. All 
reflex actions that are acquired become reflex only 



3IO THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

as they grow into habits, and habit forming is an ex- 
ceedingly important part of one's education. We may 
now consider briefly the habit forming proclivities 
of each of these minor activities. 

Some habits are short-lived because they have their 
origin in sources that are themselves temporary. Many 
that belong to infancy and childhood are of this nature 
and for this reason even though they may be undesir- 
able give little anxiety to parent or nurse. The habit 
of putting everything in the mouth is useless and carries 
with it a considerable element of danger from dirt and 
germs and sharp instruments. It gradually passes 
away as the child learns what articles are food and what 
are not without the test of the mouth. Sucking the 
thumb becomes inveterate in some babies, but is aban- 
doned in due time as the use of the hand is required 
in other things that are more essential. Habits like 
those of crying when hurt, of eating and sleeping at 
short intervals are outgro^\^l as the need for them passes 
away; or if they show signs of lingering, a little attention 
on the part of the attendant will hasten their departure. 

There are certain tendencies that should be averted 
as soon as they appear by having the cause removed 
and by giving positive instructions to the child to use 
his will power. Breathing through the mouth either 
when awake or asleep is one; giving way to anger, 
throwing himself down upon the floor and kicking and 
screaming is another. The last mentioned is the most 
serious because it might grow into a strong defect of 



THE WILL 311 

character. It may best be remedied by avoiding as 
much as possible the exciting cause and by never per- 
mitting the kicking and screaming to bring any aid or 
comfort. How to proceed in cases of mouth breathing 
has been treated in a previous chapter. 

So far we have spoken only of habits that are tem- 
porary or that need to be suppressed. There are many 
more that should be encouraged. For example all acts 
of personal care, of cleanliness, neatness and regular- 
ity of life should be cultivated and attendance to them 
insisted upon until their performance becomes a fixed 
habit requiring only reflex conditions for their consum- 
mation. Many of the niceties of life that make for hap- 
piness and that go far toward putting the possessor into 
a desirable class of society may be easily acquired by 
young children if those who have them in charge will 
but take pains to give suitable instruction. Polite 
manners, forms of etiquette, cheerfulness of disposition 
are of this order. 

Habits More Strictly Due to Instinct. — Instinct is some- 
times called inherited memory and again it is termed 
hereditary habit. Whichever way it is regarded it 
forms in very many instances an excellent basis for 
building an exemplary character. The instinct for 
mating and love for off-spring lays the foundation for 
family life ; likewise the instinct for fair play is account- 
able for much of our regard for justice. The well 
ordered life of a colony of ants, their divisions of labor, 
their provisions for ' cleanliness, for defense against 



3 1 2 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

the inclemency of weather, their laying up of stores 
in time of plenty against a time of need, all these and 
many other marks of high intelligence Nature has be- 
stowed upon these tiny creatures. If Nature has done 
so much for the ant may it not be so that much of 
man's boasted achievement is but a super-structure 
built upon a knowledge that was either bestowed or 
acquired ages ago and is what we know as instinct? 

It is the duty of teachers to be on the lookout for 
good instincts and impulses and to build upon them. 
A character so formed will be enduring. We must find 
out how Nature does things and imitate her. All the 
great teachers of the world have recognized this and have 
acted upon it. In our super-structure we may go far 
from where we started, but we must start right. In- 
stinct taught man to grind his food with his teeth. 
The greatest mills in the world that turn out thousands 
of barrels of flour and meal per day are but an extension 
of this principle. Instinct taught man to pull up grain, 
to rub the kernels out in his hands and blow the chaff 
away with his breath. From this idea has come the 
splendid reaper that cuts, threshes and winnows 
hundreds of bushels of golden grain in a day. 

So education should keep stride with the commercial 
industries. Having gotten our start from nature we 
should not be content to follow the methods of our an- 
cestors. They made progress and we should make 
greater. The methods of yesterday should but furnish 
inspiration for improved models for to-day. This is 



THE WILL 313 

true in the commercial world where success, distinction, 
and wealth await the man who can produce a better 
quality of goods with the same or less effort, or who can 
double the output without doubling the cost. Should 
it not be true where the product of his thought results 
in character and efficiency, in increased happiness and 
usefulness? 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE WILL 

MAJOR ACTIVITIES 

The main word of distinction between these and the 
preceding activities is Dehberation. As to the classifi- 
cation of minor and major activities the former is more 
essential to physical life than the latter and is shared 
equally or to a greater extent by the lower animals. 
To the latter, to deliberative thought and voluntary 
action, is indebted all the progress of the world, its 
wonderful achievements in the arts and sciences, and 
still more its rich experiences in the realm of the mental 
and the spiritual. 

The basis of voluntary action is Desire. We do things 
because we desire to do them, or we refrain from doing 
them because of an opposing desire. This is not true in 
a narrow sense. We voluntarily perform many acts 
that we would prefer to omit but they are acts that 
either contribute to some desired end or are necessary 
to the avoidance of something still more disagreeable. 
Thus a lad may walk several miles in a broiling sun, a 
thing he dislikes, for the pleasure of a half hour's swim in 
a cool pond. He may later invent any number of ex- 
cuses, also disliked, for the sake of avoiding punishment. 

The Nature of Desire. — We may define desire as a 

314 



THE WILL 315 

longing for something that we know or imagine will 
contribute to our welfare, comfort, pleasure, or happi- 
ness. Desire goes out toward some object in the achieve- 
ment of which it culminates. It is as varied and far 
reaching as the mind's capacity will permit. The ob- 
jects of our desires may be near at hand, easily attained, 
quickly utilized and forgotten, or they may be years 
ahead, far away in place and doubtful of attainment. 
They may be worthy of our highest ambitions and 
efforts or they may be so unworthy as to degrade us in 
the estimation of all right minded people. 

How Desires are Acquired and What Becomes of Them. 
— Before an object can arouse desire it must present 
one or more attractions and these may come through any 
or all of the senses. We may see a beautiful flower and 
go to considerable pains to secure it for the mere pleasure 
of possessing it and feasting our eyes upon it, or its 
perfume may attract us and we strive to secure it that 
we may enjoy its fragrance. Desire is bounded in 
large measure by the range of the senses. The mind 
cannot definitely crave anything that it knows nothing 
about. If we see Httle, hear Httle, taste Httle, we shall 
want little. As our horizon is enlarged so are our de-, 
sires increased. On the other hand attractions once 
seen or heard may be kept alive for years by memory 
while imagination may carry us far beyond the bounds 
of sense and set the mind aflame with desire that can 
scarcely be controlled. 

Desires gain in strength and influence by the amount 



3l6 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

of attention bestowed upon them, that is by being dwelt 
upon. This gives us the key to their control. We can 
greatly increase almost any desire by constantly pic- 
turing the delight in its gratification, while contrari- 
wise we can cause it to diminish by driving it out of our 
minds and givijig attention to other things. Like most 
other rules there are exceptions to this. Many youth- 
ful desires are outgrown and there comes a time in old 
age when "desire shall fail." Also in many cases the 
gratification is disappointing causing the desire to 
diminish and fall away. However the safe course to 
follow in all wrongful desires is to withdraw the at- 
tention and fix the mind upon other things. 

Conflicting Desires and Choice. — Our desires are so 
exceedingly numerous that a very large number of 
them cannot be gratified. Some eliminate themselves 
by being too remote in time or place or by being too 
difficult of attainment. Of those that remain we must 
make choice and here comes in the great factor in 
voluntary action, namely, Deliberation. This means 
that the mind sets itself to the task of investigating 
its desires, sorting them out, comparing them one with 
another, and finally selecting those that shall be in- 
dulged in or striven for. A person may have a number 
of desires at the same time but cannot possibly attend 
to all of them. He may desire to perform certain tasks 
that when performed will bring satisfaction or reward; 
or he may wish to write letters to his friends, or to go 
hunting or boating or fishing or visiting. He must 



THE WILL 317 

take these up one at a time and weigh the arguments 
for and against each one. Finally he comes to the con- 
clusion that some certain one will give more pleasure 
or satisfaction than any of the others and accordingly 
choice is made of that one. 

Two Alternatives in Choice. — It should be observed 
that there are always two ideas and only two in actual 
choosing: choice actually consists in deciding for or 
against a certain course of action. In the examples 
given above, the person concerned must decide to write 
to his friends or not to do so, to go hunting or not to go 
hunting, etc. Wherever there are conflicting desires 
no rational minded person can avoid making choice. 
When a number of objects like those suggested above 
present themselves he may decide not to perform any 
of them but in so doing he is choosing quite as definitely 
as though he had decided upon a certain one to the ex- 
clusion of all the others. 

The Elements that Enter into Choice. — These are as 
various as the feelings themselves, in fact all desires 
are prompted by feelings, while all feelings when 
brought to fulfillment result in desire or in aversion 
which is the negative of desire. Since, as one author 
puts it, desire stands at the threshold of every voluntary 
action it will be well for us to consider which desires 
are worthy and which unworthy, how to cultivate the 
one kind and how to repress the other, in short how to 
arm ourselves with knowledge on the one hand and 
with the power of control on the other. 



3l8 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

The Question of Self Control. — Every normal minded 
person who comes to the age of accountability is con- 
fronted with the great question of self management. 
How shall my life be regulated? Shall it be governed 
by the laws of reason, righteousness and religion, or 
shall there be no plan of regularity or system about it? 
Before taking any important step shall it be carefully 
deliberated upon and the end as clearly foreseen as it 
may be, or shall I be guided by impulse, pay heed to the 
pleasure of the moment only and let the future take care 
of itself? Shall I control circumstances and shape my 
destiny according to the best possibilities within me, 
or shall I be controlled by my environment, drift with 
the general current and take chances on the outcome? 

Strange as it may seem the vast majority of people 
appear to have adopted the latter of each of these al- 
ternatives. They are not guiding their lives carefully 
and thoughtfully as a pilot would guide a ship through 
dangerous waters, but are simply letting their daily 
circumstances control or determine their daily actions. 
In fact it is not very strange that it should be so. Cir- 
cumstances are very powerful agents, especially when 
they take the form, as they frequently do, of stern 
necessity. The call for food and clothing and shelter 
is an urgent call, and even though a man may have lofty 
inclinations and ambitions, if he is compelled for a con- 
siderable time to sacrifice them in order to obtain the 
necessities of life, they are pretty sure to grow weaker 
and weaker until the mind has become sodden and the 



THE WILL • 319 

weary grind of life has robbed the soul of its aspira- 
tions. 

What is the Remedy? — The first and best remedy is to 
avoid the situation just described, to escape the clutch 
of the bread and butter problem until one has gotten 
such a grasp upon himself that he shall be able to solve 
that problem and still have time and strength left for 
other matters. In fact this is largely what the schools 
are for, to give every child an opportunity to discover 
himself, to learn what his powers of mind and body are, 
to be given an insight into the great fields of usefulness 
wherein lie wealth of knowledge, extensive and help- 
ful friendships, and ideas for reflection of which that 
other life ground down by poverty and hardship never 
even dreams. The State realizes that the schools must 
provide this revelation of self and this insight into the 
possibilities of life, hence our free schools and compul- 
sory attendance laws. But the teachers must realize 
their responsibility in furnishing the right kind of 
instruction and inspiration else the provisions of the 
State shall be of no avail. 

Agencies Outside of the Schools. — When a man has 
had aspirations to be more than a mere wage earner, a 
machine to grind out a meager living, has once settled 
down into that dull routine is there any chance of his 
extricating himself or being extricated by some friendly 
hand? If he has formed the habit of thinking, of com- 
paring, contrasting, testing, weighing, his very con- 
dition may dawn upon him and awaken him to sufficient 



320 • THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

efforts and sacrifices to enable him to rise to higher 
planes whereon he may get control of circumstances 
and follow plans of his own. If he has not acquired 
the thinking habit but is still capable of learning he may 
be rescued by some friend, relative, pastor or philan- 
thropic worker. Even in such instances much depends 
upon the home conditions, the encouragement or lack 
of it that is to be found there. Aside from such hopeful 
cases as the above, which it is to be feared are not over 
abundant, there is not much chance of rescue for those 
who have been caught in this kind of semi-hopeless toil. 

The Study Between Good and Evil. — This great prob- 
lem comes for solution to all mankind regardless 
of wealth or position or any other consideration. It 
is possible that the human mind might have been so 
constructed that each individual would fit into the 
body politic wherever he happened to strike and in- 
variably choose to act the part that would be best 
for himself and for the social fabric as a whole, but it 
is certain that it was not constructed upon that basis. 
Man desires to do many things that are neither for his 
own good nor for the good of society in general ; and the 
entire moral code of the world, so far as it has been 
evolved, whether expressed in law or in the teachings 
of religion, is for the purpose of eliminating, checking, 
controlling, punishing or reforming evil. We may now 
notice some of the phases of this great problem. 

The Nature of Evil. — In a broad sense anything 
that disturbs the adjustment of man with his environ- 



THE WILL 321 

ment is evil. Taken in this sense cold and heat, flood, 
famine, storm, and all destructive phenomena are evils. 
Moral teaching cannot include those evils for which 
Nature alone is responsible, but concerns itself only 
with those for which man is accountable. From an- 
other point of view, evil is good perverted. Appetite 
for food is a good thing, without it the race would fail 
to keep itself alive. But appetite used for the sake of 
its own indulgence, eating merely for the pleasure it 
affords, is evil. Again many things are wrong because 
Society so decrees. For example one may not carry 
a concealed weapon, not because there is harm in the 
act itself but because harm is likely to come of it, there- 
fore it is forbidden. Some things are regarded as 
wrong now that were formerly not so recognized, for 
example one human being enslaving another. 

Why Wrong is Chosen in Preference to Right. — It is the 
nature of desire to seek gratification and when the right 
of another comes in the way either the gratification 
must be given up or the right of the other must be 
sacrificed. It is human nature to look upon one's own 
interest with favor rather than upon the interest of 
another, hence the other's good is most frequently 
sacrificed and one's own desire gratified. The world 
has been a long time in coming to regard all men as 
brothers and to look upon another's rights as sacredly 
as upon one's owti and comparatively few have yet 
reached that point. But man's natural tendency 
is to sin against himself almost as frequently as against 
21 



322 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

his neighbor. Why is this? It is because the grati- 
fication of desire that is injurious is immediate and 
pressing while the evil that goes with it appears to be 
remote and perhaps may be altogether escaped. Then 
again great offenses that would bring calamity are not 
committed in the beginning. Only small sins are risked 
at first and while the gratification is considerable on the 
one hand the evil consequences are either nothing at all 
or very slight on the other, and so the transgressor is 
encouraged to go on. Gradually it becomes the habit 
to yield to temptation and in the ver}^ face of danger 
and with the realization that serious consequences are 
certain to follow gross evils are indulged in. Finally 
the associates of the evil-doer are of his own kind and 
use all their influence to drag him down. 

The Forces that Combat Evil. — The foundation for 
all good in one's life should be laid in the early years 
before the age of accountability is reached. The strong- 
est opponent that can be matched against evil tenden- 
cies is a first class home training. A child before he 
knows the right from the wrong must be put in the right 
way and kept there until it is easier and more natural 
to him to do right than to do wrong. As early as pos- 
sible he should be shown why he should not yield to 
wrongful inclinations and taught to inhibit them. If 
the home training all through his minority is what it 
should be he is pretty certain to be so firmly established 
that for the remainder of his life he will choose the right. 
If the home training is poor, bad, or wanting there is 



THE WILL 323 

still a chance providing other good influences get hold 
of iiim in time. 

The Efficacy of the Church. — Religion is a mighty 
power for good in the world. It appeals to men through 
their consciences. Its object is threefold, (i) to prevent 
sin, (2) to teach mankind to become the embodiment 
of all the virtues and graces of life, and (3) to save them 
in a future world from the consequences of their short- 
comings in this life. Religion in its organized form is 
represented by the various churches most of which 
in this country at least, work along lines of morality 
and pay particular attention to uprightness of conduct. 
The limit of the church is the world itself. It there- 
fore becomes the duty of the church not only to look 
after its own votaries and dependents but to reach out 
to the neglected ones everywhere, rescue them from 
any and all forms of evil and by kindness, attention 
and love win them into ways of righteousness. 

The church has a powerful appeal to make, the appeal 
of a satisfied conscience, selfrespect, the esteem of others 
and the hope of immortal glory. Where it works in 
conjunction with the home its efforts are pretty sure to 
result in a high grade of moral and useful citizenship. 
The church should supplement the home training while 
the home should back up the teachings of the church. 
Where the homes fail to come to the help of the church 
there is still a chance through the Sunday School, 
rescue bands, and the like; but the probabilities are 
greatly lessened. 



324 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

The Province of the School. — The school also is a 
powerful factor in helping children to choose the right 
instead of the wrong. The aim of the school is different 
from that of the church in that the school seeks to de- 
velop the child physically, mentally, and morally to the 
point where he shall be his own mentor, guide, and 
ruler, and shall be able to make the most of life in what- 
ever lines he may choose. It does not appeal particu- 
larly to the conscience nor to the spiritual phases of 
existence but rather to the practical. Its watchword 
is efficiency in all directions. Its standards are high, 
it brooks no slackness of effort in any of its undertak- 
ings. It is, or should be, as avowedly concerned for the 
moral and physical as for the mental welfare of its 
pupils. That the schools are beginning to realize their 
responsibility for physical fitness has been clearly 
shown in a previous chapter while the responsibility 
for their morals has been recognized for a much longer 
period. 

The Power and Meaning of Law. — Society as a whole 
is concerned for the welfare of every citizen. Her first 
duty is to look after the little ones, to supplement the 
home training by providing for ever}^ child an education 
that shall as far as possible fit him for the duties and 
responsibilities of citizenship. For this purpose schools 
have been provided, the efficiency of which has just 
been shown in the preceding paragraphs. But society 
goes further than this and undertakes to control not 
the desires but the actions, so far as they are against 



THE WILL 325 

the good of society, of all who in spite of all agencies 
made and provided have not learned to control them- 
selves. To this end laws that carry with them a penalty 
for each violation are enacted and to a considerable 
extent executed. 

Laws are enacted for a threefold purpose, (i) as a 
deterrent from crime, (2) for the protection of society, 
and (3) to reform the evil doer. A great majority of 
the citizens of any civilized country have no desire to 
commit acts of violence against their neighbors, and 
were there no laws would not do so. But always 
there are those who for the sake of selfish desires will 
violate the sacredness of property rights, the sanctity 
of the home, and will even take life itself. Society 
recognizes this, and for these the laws are made. 

Of the agencies here considered the law is doubtless 
the least effective. St. Paul, Gal. 3:24, describes it as 
a Schoolmaster, but it must be admitted that it makes 
a rather poor teacher because its appeal comes most 
strongly after it has been violated and hence too late 
to affect the character of the individual concerned. 
To be sure respect for law is potent but this comes 
more from the teaching of the home, the school and the 
church than from observing the operations of the law 
itself. 

The Effects of Heredity and Environment upon the Will. 
— We have now considered the influence upon the 
will of the family, the school, the church and of society 
in general as represented by the law and we can see 



326 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

that these agencies taken as a whole have vety much 
to do with the formation of character. It is important 
to observe in connection with these the influence of 
the two forces mentioned in the heading of this para- 
graph. Let us take them in their order. 

I. Heredity means far more than many people sup- 
pose. We seldom stop to think how much of what we 
are is owing to our ancestors, and when we do give it a 
thought we are likely to assign too much to our im- 
mediate forbears and too little to those farther back. 
In the first place, we inherit not only the color of hair 
and eyes but the hair and eyes themselves; not only our 
complexions and features but our whole bodies. And 
we inherit not only our bodies but a myriad of nice 
adaptations for the life we are to lead. Also, we in- 
herit our minds, with a thousand tendencies which we 
call instincts already provided against the time of need. 
Moreover, we inherit our physical tendencies to be 
strong or weak, our mental dispositions and powers 
and our spiritual longings and aspirations. 

That heredity goes a long way back is proved by 
national and racial types. Peculiarities and character- 
istics that have been handed down for hundreds of 
generations are still plainly in evidence and w^e readily 
identify members of the various races by these well 
known characteristics. We know an American Indian 
wherever we see one, because they all conform to the 
original type. An Indian in California and one in 
Wisconsin are probably no kin to each other and their 



THE WILL 327 

ancestors have been along separate lines for several 
hundred years back, yet they look alike for the reason 
that each has inherited the peculiarities of a common 
ancestor somewhere back in the distance possibly the 
founder of the race. The same is true of all races and 
to a great extent of nationalities. In fact, heredity 
changes very little from generation to generation. The 
type of the Anglo-Saxon is much the same now as it 
was a thousand years ago. 

Moreover, we are the heirs of many things that have 
not come from our direct ancestors. We inherit the 
customs of society, for example that of eating three 
meals a day and of wearing clothes. In a very large 
and real sense we are the "heirs of all the ages." Al- 
most everything that we shall ever use is already pro- 
vided for us when we come into this world. We do 
not have to invent a language, all we shall need in 
that line is in common use and we could scarcely avoid 
learning it if we tried. Schools, churches, forms of 
government, books, music, all the arts and sciences, 
in short all that the world has acquired is ours to use 
or to enjoy. 

"But," exclaims one, "what is there left? If we in- 
herit our bodies, minds, souls, and surroundings every- 
thing is included." Aye, truly it is. We sometimes 
think we have wills of our own but these we inherit 
too. But with our wills we also inherit the power to 
choose, and with that power we can at least do some 
things not determined by our other inheritances. 



328 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

Here is where education comes in. There is about 
every person an individuality that is distinctly his 
own, that gives hirn the power of self direction. Ee 
may accept or reject a great many things regardless 
of what others would do under like circumstances. 
The teacher cannot change the heredity of his pupils, 
that is fixed, but he can train the mind to look differ- 
ently upon its surroundings and to use to greater ad- 
vantage its inheritances. We have inherited this world 
and all that it contains, but we are not compelled to live 
in any one spot or use only certain things. We may 
choose to remain in the neighborhood where we were 
brought up or we may remove to the north, east, south, 
or west. We may make our home in the United States 
or go to England or any other country. 

Effect of Environment. — A certain man had his home 
in a community where education was at a discount, re- 
ligion at a low ebb, and the morals of the community 
low. His son fourteen years of age almost unavoid- 
ably fell into bad company and was brought home one 
night in a state of intoxication. The father at once 
made up his mind that it was not a fit place to bring 
up his children; so he sold his possessions and moved 
into another state where there were good schools and 
churches and where a much higher standard of morality 
v/as maintained in the neighborhood. The result 
abundantly justified the father's judgment. 

The Power Within.— Young people should be en- 
couraged to exert their wills frequently in favor of the 



THE WILL 329 

right and against the wrong. The struggle is pleasing 
in itself, the winning is a source of satisfaction and each 
victory increases the strength and the skill and gives 
assurance of larger triumphs in the future. A human 
being making his way in life should not be like a log 
drifting in a stream and being carried wherever wind 
and tide direct; he should be like a steamship that pays 
little attention to wind or tide but goes in whatever 
direction the captain desires because the power is 
within. We show our superiority, our likeness to divin- 
ity, when we direct our own lives and do it wisely. 

Worthy Motives Essential. — No man can achieve any- 
thing worth while without a motive, some end or aim 
that when attained will pay back, measure for meas- 
ure and more, all that was put into the struggle of 
effort, longing, patience, sacrifice. On the other hand 
a worthy motive held steadily before the mind will en- 
able one to go through almost any kind of hardship 
and achieve whatever is possible to human effort. 

Unworthy motives are a liindrance to all that is good 
and must be got rid of or life will be a wreck. We hear 
it occasionally expressed that the chief aim of Americans 
is to make money, acquire wealth, roll in luxury. This 
is probably by no means the prevailing motive though 
it is common enough. Such a motive unless it is sub- 
sidiary to some higher aim is base and low and if it is 
cultivated or permitted to have first place in one's 
thoughts it will bring in its train other low ideals. A 
man so possessed is not likely to have any fine ideas 



330 THE TRAINING OK CHILDREN 

of honesty in dealing, he will not be philanthropic, 
generous, whole-souled. It often happens that men 
start out to acquire wealth with the full intention of 
being honest in their dealings but as the struggle goes 
on and difficulties and disappointments are met and 
the goal seems a long way off with the desire for riches 
increasing, the temptation to cheat is yielded to once 
and then again and again until cheating, lying and de- 
frauding become a part of the game. No matter how 
rich such a man becomes he is wrong in his views, he is 
narrow, his soul is shriveled, and he is a failure so far 
as the higher ideals of life are concerned. 

The Test of Motives. — Anything that savors of 
selfishness is low even when not accompanied wath 
other evils such as those mentioned above. The grasp- 
ing, penurious person is not imbued with high motives. 
He is not greatly concerned for the welfare of his neigh- 
borhood or his country; his soul is not burdened with 
the ills of humanity, his heart is not stirred at the dis- 
tress of the poor, his ear is not bent to catch the cry 
of the needy, his hand is not open to appeals for char- 
ity. If, on the other hand, one's heart goes out to the 
needy, if one is ready to lend a hand in all good work, 
if he is ambitious to be of service to his community, 
his country, and the whole world, if his chief desire 
is to help to bring about the brotherhood of man with 
the full recognition of the Fatherhood of God, he may 
know that his motives are worthy. He may then strive 
with all his powers to achieve great results, to realize 



THE WILL 331 

his highest desires. He will enjoy putting forth effort 
and even moderate success will seem like triumph. 

The Effect of Worthy Motives on Character. — When 
one's mind is filled with a great and lofty purpose there 
is little room for evil thoughts or plans. Cheating, 
lying, and deceiving do not appeal to one whose heart 
is set upon that which is noble. There is no better way 
of driving out evil inclinations than the setting up of 
worthy motives and adhering steadily to them. Very 
bad habits, such as the use of tobacco or intoxicants 
or even lying and stealing, can be broken off and for- 
ever discarded in this way. Worthy motives stimulate 
to industry, and industry is a great sagefuard against 
temptation. The busy man is seldom a dangerous 
man, and if he is engaged in enterprises that are es- 
pecially planned for the benefit of mankind he is almost 
certain to be good at heart. 

Doubtful Motives. — It is true that men from selfish 
or evil motives occasionally choose high callings. One 
may elect to preach the gospel and still be moved by 
the very worst aims, merely using the robe of his sacred 
office as a cloak for his wicked purposes. Such men are 
the only real hypocrites. The person who stumbles 
and falls because he is weak but who keeps his mind 
upon a main purpose which is right, is not a hypocrite. 
Again there are those who have no fixed motives. 
They halt and hesitate and are in doubt whether to 
follow this desire or that. A conflict rages between 
the desire to yield to pleasure on the one hand and to 



332 THE TRAINING OF CHILDREN 

obey the call of duty on the other. Such people have 
no real happiness and their only chance for a peaceful 
state is to make up their mind to forsake the wrong 
and to follow the right. If they take the opposite 
course they will either suffer permanent remorse or 
degenerate morally, and losing their sense of right and 
wrong, fall into a state that is infinitely deplorable. 

The Main Thing is to have strong purposes and to 
keep one's mind steadily fixed toward their attainment. 
Those whose business it is to train the young should 
see to it that worthy and attractive aims are kept be- 
fore their minds, and these aims should be of a per- 
manent kind that will result in character and never 
grow less desirable or less worthy of striving for. They 
should also cultivate pure desires. This can be done 
by frequently calling their attention to those who have 
achieved greatness of character, and by always setting 
an example of willing righteousness and cheerful striv- 
ing for the mastery over e\'ery evil tendency and for 
the attainment of the highest type of character. 



INDEX 



Accuracy of inspection, 209. 
Acquaintance, the period of, 21. 
Activity of children, 22, 65. 
Allegiance, 81. 

Ambitions, worthy and un- 
worthy, 210. 
Anger, 32, 15 5- 
Apperception, defined, 204. 
Attention, effect of, 276. 

Beginnings, the period of, 136. 
Bible stories, 49. 
Blunders of children, 40. 
Books for children, 119, 327. 
Breathing, correct and incorrect, 
194. 

Child, the, 22, 126; his first day 
at school, 127; his ignorance, 
132; his blunders, 40; his curi- 
osity, 38, 88; his games, 45, 
244; his books, 119, 227; his 
health, 186; his industries, 65; 
his plays, 245; his sensitive- 
ness, 40; his moral sense, 29. 

Choice, 316, 320. 

Church, efficiency of the, 292, 323. 

Classification, laws of, 230. 

Clay, Henry, 242. 

Cleanliness, habits of, 195. 



Clothing, care of the, 47. 
Colds, causes and cures of, 193. 
College education, the period of, 

145- 

Colors, 173; materials for school 
use, 174. 

Concepts, defined, 193; how ac- 
quired, 274; conception and 
perception, 275. 

Consciousness, defined, 199; sub- 
consciousness, 201. 

Contrast, the law of, 229. 

Convalescents, 197. 

Corporal punishment, 114. 

Curiosity, 38, 88. 

Deceit, 34. 

Desires, 315. 

Discipline, 36; jerkiness, 112. 

Distance, comprehension of, 174. 

Duration of time, 165. 

Elementary training, period of, 
141. 

Emotions, why studied, 19; de- 
velopment of 32. 

Environment, influences of, 240; 

effects of, 325, 328. 
Evil, nature of, 320; opposing 

forces, 322. 



333 



334 



INDEX 



Experience, value of, i6o. 
Extensity and intensity, 167 

Fables and fairy stories, 51. 

Fairy talcs, their value and in 
fluence, 52, 252. 

Fear, 3^. 

Feeling, the law of, 234. 

Feelings, special study of, 270 
sensuous, 270; intellectual, 278 
associated, 281; social, 282 
business, 286; patriotic, 288 
moral, 291; religious, 292. 

Games for children, 45, 244, 246. 

Gardening as a child's industry, 
66. 

Geography as a memory study, 
224. 

Government, parental, 69; prin- 
ciples of, 71. 

Group, the power of the, 99. 

Growth, conditions of, 26. 

Habits, influence and impor- 
tance of, 310, 311. 

Hand and brain, coordination of, 
213. 

Health, inspection in schools, 
186; general care of, 196. 

Hearing, 15, 139, 173; the sense 
of, 177; tests of, 192. 

Henry, Patrick, 242. 

Heredity, influence of, 241 ; effects 

of, 325- 
History as a memory study, 225. 



Imagination, nature and im- 
portance of, 17, 27; special 
study of, 237; cultivation of 
the, 244. 

Imitation, 95; from outside in- 
fluences, 97. 

Impulsive actions, 306. 

Industries, children's, 65. 

Instinctive actions, 302, 311. 

Instruction, materials for, 43. 

Intellectual feelings, the, 278. 

Intensity and extensity, 167. 

Interest, the law of, 231. 

Investigation, children's pro- 
pensity for, 88. 

Kindergarten, The, 117. 

Language, correctness of, 39. 

Laws, rules, and regulations, 76; 
promulgation of, 79. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 242. 

Literature, for children, 119, 227, 
252; in cultivation of the im- 
agination, 261. 

L^'ing, the habit of, 92. 

Materials for instruction, 43. 

Memory, importance and in- 
fluence of, 17, 26; special study 
of, 214; cultivation of, 220; 
law of, 226. 

Mental activity, the physiolog- 
ical basis of, 148. 

Mind, the nature of, 12; con- 
ditions at birth, 14, 21. 

Motives, test of, 330; doubtful, 
33^- 



INDEX 



335 



Music, 55; its value in character 
training, 56. 

Nature, study of, 226. 

Nervous system, 148; care of 
the, 153; effect of fatigue upon 
the, 156; nervous disorders, 157. 

Numbers, the study of, 250. 

Obedience, 30. 
Observation, 16, 206. 
Offenses, nature of, 83. 

Parents, their knowledge of 
psychology, 12; agreement be- 
tween, 31 ; must keep promises, 
35 ; firmness in disciphne, 36; 
parental government, 69. 

Pedagogy, the field of, 20. 

Percept, defined, 6; importance 
of, 203. 

Perception, 6, 14, 16, 24; special 
study of, 198; transferred per- 
ceptions, 204; compared with 
conceptions, 275. 

Pictures, influence of, 61. 

Play, materials for, 43, 245; and 
games, 45, 244, 246. 

Property, the rights of, loi. 

Psychology, a difficult study, 11. 

Punishment, 84; object of, 108; 
improper, 109; corporal, 114. 

Quality, perception of, 162. 
Quantity, 164. 



Reading as a means of training, 
119, 227, 250; as an aid to 
thought, 269. 

Reasoning with the will, 28. 

Reflection, 18. 

Reflexive nerve actions, 151, 
300. 

Religion, 58, 323; religious feel- 
ings, 292. 

Repetition, the law of, 233. 

Right and wrong, 320. 

School, the first day at, 126; 
school life, divisions of, 136; 
how to make school pleasant, 
248; agencies outside of school, 
319; province of the school, 

324- 

Secondary training, the period 
of, 143. 

Seeing and the sense of sight, 15, 
139, 170, 184. 

Self-control, 318. 

Sensation, 16, 159; attributes of, 
162. 

Sense organs, quality of, feel- 
ings in, 272; cooperation of, 
161; special study of, 169; 
care of, 186, 191. 

Sensitiveness of children, 40. 

Sight, sense of, 170; incorrect 
vision, 175, 189. 

Similarity, law of, 228. 

Smart sayings of children, 41. 

Smell, sense of, 181. 

Society, how formed, 99. 

Stories for children, 48. 



336 

Subconsciousness, 201. 



INDEX 

Truthfulness, 94. 



Taste, the sense of, 179. 
Teacher, the country, 125; his 

business, 11; cooperation with 

parents, 121; should know how 

to study, 139, 147. 
Thinking power, the, 12; special 

study of, 157. 
Throat, care of the, 195. 
Touch, the sense of, 183. 
Travel, the value of, 63. 



UNTRUTHrULNESS, 92. 

Voice culture, 178. 

Will, the, defined, 19; special 
study of, 299; minor activities, 
300; major activities, 314. 

Work and imagination, 246. 

Worship, forms of, 60. 



AUG 3 ISir 



